1 s2.0 S095965262033420X Main

Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123375
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Electric vehicles and key adaptation challenges and prospects in

Pakistan: A comprehensive review
Rafiq Asghar a, *, Faisal Rehman b, Zahid Ullah c, Affaq Qamar d, Kaleem Ullah d,
Kashif Iqbal a, Ali Aman e, Agha Ali Nawaz f
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
b
Department of Electronics Engineering, Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, UMT Lahore, Sialkot Campus, Pakistan
d
Faculty of Electrical Energy System Engineering, U.S. Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy UET, Peshawar, Pakistan
e
Department of Electronics Engineering, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
f
Department of Electrical Engineering, FAST, Islamabad, Pakistan
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Large-scale EVs acceptance would certainly lead to relieving major issues, including carbon pollution,
Received 20 January 2020 petroleum dependence, and economic prosperity. However, Pakistan confronting a range of cross-
Received in revised form sectoral and multifarious impediments has recently decided to switch from ICEs to EVs with a variety
24 June 2020
of policy options for auto manufacturers, customers, and worldwide stakeholders. This paper gives a
Accepted 18 July 2020
Available online 6 August 2020
detailed overview of ongoing EVs maturation and addresses some of the main adaptation challenges and
opportunities in Pakistan. The review shows that state financial subsidies, market prices, technical
Handling editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemes malignancy, and social drawbacks are some of the most significant obstacles for EVs to join the current
market. Hence, recommendations are stipulated in compliance with the corresponding obstacles to
Keywords: encourage the competence and expansion of the EVs industry which will contribute to more secure
Electric vehicles futures. On the other hand, Pakistan’s transition to EVs offers some exciting milestones, there is a need to
GHG emission adopt a proactive and effective strategy to track the positive aspects of fast progress and optimize its
Key challenges benefits.
Market potential
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Pakistan case
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. EVs system modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Battery modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. EM modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3. ICE modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4. PEC modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. Challenges for EVs in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Policymaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.1. Capital and tax subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.2. Charging infrastructure policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.3. EVs prices policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2. Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. Wide-scale installation of charging infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4. Grid load balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Opportunities for EVs in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: engrrafi[email protected] (R. Asghar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123375
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 R. Asghar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123375
4.1. Economic development opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.1.1. Increased employment prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.2. Enhanced living standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.3. Reduce fossil fuels dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Environmental sustainability opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3. Industrial development opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Introduction BEVs are entirely relying on the power from their battery packs
whereas the range of such vehicles is depended on its battery ca-
Country growth is ascertained owning to the purchase and pacity (Thomas, 2009). These vehicles can cover areas up to 500 km
consumption of fossil fuels for the automotive and power sectors. on a single charge and the only problem associated with charging
However, the depletion of fossil fuel resources and the emission of time which normally takes 36h for complete recharge (Yilmaz and
CO2 are coercing the countries to rummage for an alternate solu- Krein, 2013). The FEVs are often termed as HFCVs and such vehicles
tion. Researchers are constantly revolutionizing new techniques to generate the essential power from the chemical reaction of fuel
endures the future challenges and reduce the dependency of fossil cells. These vehicles have zero-emissions and employ onboard
fuels (Habib et al., 2015). In this regard, EVs are established in the hydrogen or oxygen from the air to drive the electric motors
transportation sector as an environmentally friendly and lower (Helmolt and Eberle, 2007; Mori and Hirose, 2009). The HEVs rely
toxic gas emission alternative (Asghar et al., 2020). EVs are using an on both ICE and electric motors for giving propulsion to the wheels
electric motor driven by a rechargeable battery instead of the and offer superior mileage. The central controller of the HEVs
combustion engine as in conventional vehicles (Rezaee et al., 2013). regulates the maneuver of drive-drain through a more advanced
This holds a certain advantage over conventional technologies due control algorithm (Sabri et al., 2016; Salmasi, 20070). Another EVs
to its quietness, trouble-free operation, and influence in moder- available on the road is the PHEVs that have an inimitable on-board
ating the hazardous gas emissions (Ma et al., 2012). The EVs are computer system compared to the HEVs. The PHEVs entailed large
operating with few configurations based on energy sources. EVs battery packs and facilitates the main driving force whereas; the
can be merely operated with pure battery packs, some acquired ICE just extant the range (Marchesoni and Vacca, 2007; Peng et al.,
energy from an ICE, whereas; some employed both ICE and battery 2017).
packs (Noor et al., 2017). The four categories of EVs that are widely According to an economic survey, the Pakistan transport sector
commercialized as follows: a) BEVs b) FCEVs c) HEVs d) PHEVs. The has consumed 47% of import liquid fuels whereas only 23% is used
Nomenclature HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles

HFCVs Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
AC Air Conditioner ICE Internal Combustion Engine
AIE Association of Electrical Installations IEA International Energy Agency
AEVA Australian Electric Vehicle Association IEC International Electro-technical Commission
BAU Business as Usual IM Induction Motor
BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
BCG Boston Consulting Group OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
BMS Battery Management System OCV Open Circuit Voltage
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate PAMA Pakistan Automotive Manufacturers Association
CBU Complete Built Units PEC Power Electronics Converter
CEIC Census and Economic Information Center PDMA Provincial Disaster Management Authority
CKD Completely Knocked Down PF Power Factor
CPEC ChinaePakistan Economic Corridor PHEVs Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
CPUC California Public Utilities Commission PM Permanent Magnet
DC Direct Current PNGV Partnership New Generation Vehicle
DP Dual Polarization PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
DTM Drive Traction Manager PPGG Public Policy Group Germanwatch
EMC Energy Management Control MOCC Ministry of Climate Change
EVs Electric Vehicles NRC Natural Resources Canada
FCEVs Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
FFVs Fossil Fuel Vehicles SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
GHGs Green House Gases SAE Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland
GM General Motors SEAI Society of Automotive Engineers
GNL General Nonlinear SoC State of Charge
GOP Government of Pakistan SRM Switched Reluctance Motor
R. Asghar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123375 3
Fig. 1. GHG emission by various sectors (Mir et al., 2017).
for power generation (Naseem et al., 2019). Correspondingly, the

country’s transport sector also consumed 138m cubic feet of nat-
ural gas per day, thus, the second biggest contributor to GHG in
Fig. 2. Comparison of different rechargeable batteries.
South Asia after Sri Lanka (Abdula et al., 2005). The total GHG
emitted by the country is around 167.2 tetragrams of CO2 equiva-
lent and alone, the transport sector of Pakistan producing nearly Assess the design and implementation of key components of the
22.69% of GHG which is equivalent to 37.7 Tg of CO2 (Mir et al., EVs and provide the major manufacturers with details.
2017). Moreover, the demand for transport vehicles is growing GHG emissions from ICE-based vehicles and their impact on
annually at a pace of 6.41%. In 2012, the total registered vehicles public life, ecosystems, and the domestic economy.
were 11.7 million compared to 3.9 million in 2002 which divulges Highlighted the major challenges that hampered the change
an increase of 200% in just ten years. The detail of GHG emissions by from EV in Pakistan, despite the government’s political
various sectors of Pakistan are presented in Fig. 1. initiative.
IPCC denounces that human endeavors in South Asia are Demonstrate the future developmental prospects in association
accountable for a 95% increase in GHG. Pakistan is the 7th most with EVs which can lead to economic prosperity, environmen-
venerable to climate change which affected both the average tally sustainable development, and technological advancement.
annual temperature and precipitation (Carabine and Lemma, 2014). Recommended strategies for policymakers and private
The toxic GHG emission from fossil fuels impacting human health manufacturing firms to leverage the financial benefits of rapid
and polluted floodwater outbreaks various harmful diseases. Future progress.
forecasts signify that at the end of the 21st century, the average
temperature in both Pakistan and India could rise by 3 Ce6 C if The manuscript includes five sections: The modeling of different
essential steps are not procured. In the SAARC summit, Pakistan has components of EVs are outlined in Section 2. Section 3 discusses the
committed to reducing the GHG by around 20% at the end of 2030, hindrances that are precluding the development of EVs industries
however, no effort was made to establish and deploy EVs as a mode in Pakistan while the conceivable opportunities are highlighted in
of transportation (nergy Centre and Depl, 2017). At another con- Section 4. The conclusions of the paper drawn in Section 6.
ference ’Green Grids Initiative’, Pakistan edified various legislative
members about the renewable energy integration (Inter Press
2. EVs system modeling
Service, 2019) and also coerced automotive companies to bring
EVs onto the market at a fair price to attract more customers. In this
The EVs employ Diverse energy sources to give the required
context, the Minister of Industry created a draft policy to support
driving force. The propulsion can be from the battery packs or the
EVs imports and manufacturing in Pakistan which the federal
combination of both battery packs and ICE. Different models have
government approved later in November 2019 (Ministry of
been proposed by the researchers to estimate the key components
Industries an, 2016). At present, Honda and Toyota are two car
for all sorts of EVs (Hanifah et al., 2015; Cipollone et al., 2014;
companies that have introduced HEVs in Pakistan, while Kar-
Mapelli and Tarsitano, 2012; Doucette and McCulloch, 2011). These
akoram Motor is the only supplier of the BEVs. Likewise, in
models have taken into consideration the motor designs, types of
Pakistan, electric bikes have also gathered pace and until now, for
battery, inverter specifications, load balancing, and energy con-
various income-groups, Neon (Electric bikes, 2018), Jalta
version. The purpose of this section is to peruse the modeling of key
(Pakwheels, 2019), Jaguar (Technology, 2019), and Super Power
components of the articulated EVs while amalgamating the efforts
have introduced their e-bike versions. Three BEV and PHEV charge
of all the researchers. Moreover, through the tables and graphical
stations have been established by private companies to sponsored
illustration, the major manufacturers and applications of key
EVs in large city centers: emporium mall (Lahore), metro bus
components are stipulated.
(Islamabad), and Dulmenmall (Karachi). Nevertheless, such ven-
tures are only capable of offering small customers in certain regions
and therefore, cannot adopt large-scale EVs, which ensures that 2.1. Battery modeling
efficient and cost-effective measures to facilitate the transition
process are important. For simulating the performance of the BEVs, PHEVs, FEVs, and
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the ongoing HEVs, the battery models play an important part in deeming the
development of EVs and discusses some of Pakistan’s major chal- output voltage. From that perspective, a Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) bat-
lenges and prospects of adaptation. The main contributions of this tery is widely commercialized owing to its high specific power and
paper are as follows: energy valuing (Deng, 2015). Fig. 2 shows the gravimetric power
and energy density of some of the battery technologies employed
Table 1
Proposed Li-ion battery models.
References Model Descriptions
The Rint Model (He et al., 2011) fVt ¼ OCV Ro :IL g

Where Vt is the terminal voltage, IL is the load
current and Ro is the ohmic resistance.
8 9
The DP Model (Yu et al., 2015) > Vt ¼ OCV Ro :IL Va Vb >
>
> >
>
>
> >
>
>
< I Va >
=
V_ a ¼ L
Ca Ca Ra
>
> >
>
>
> I V >
>
>
> V_ b ¼ L b >
>
: ;
Cb Cb Rb
8 9
The EP Model (Xiong et al., 2011) >
> Vt ¼ OCV Ro :IL Vp >
>
>
> >
>
< =
_Vp ¼ IL VP
>
> CP CP RP >
>
>
> >
>
: ;
OCV ¼ Ko þ K1 ln SoC þ K2 lnð1 SoCÞ
8 9
~ a et al., 2019)
The PNGV Model (Saldan > V ¼ OCV R :I V V >
>
> t o L a Co >
>
>
> >
>
>
< I Va >
=
V_ a ¼ L
Ca Ca R a
>
> >
>
>
> >
>
> I >
>
: V_ Co ¼ L >
;
Co
8 9
The GNL Model (Xiang-Wu et al., 2018) >
> Va >
>
>
> IS ¼ þ Ca V_ a >
>
< Ra =
>
> Vt ¼ OCV Ro :IL Vp VCo >
>
>
> >
>
: ;
Vt ¼ ðIL Is Þ:RS
in EVs. The first rechargeable battery developed in 1859 was the et al., 2014; Awadallah and Venkatesh, 2016). Different Li-ion
Lead-Acid (Pb-Acid) that provided the initial power to the starter models shown in Table 1 are proposed to discerned the SoC at
(Ogura and Kolhe, 2017). Conversely, due to the obligation of high any given moment. The term SoC signifies the current level of
power and energy densities, the use of Pb-Acid was restricted. In charge concerning the battery capacity. Table 2 also compares
the early 2000s, Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) remained the various parameters for the six most used battery technologies.
commonly used battery in both HEVs and BEVs and even now some
models of HEVs are employing the modified version of this battery 2.2. EM modeling
(Iclodean et al., 2017), however, advancement in the Li-ion has
reduced the market shares of Ni-MH. During the last decades, Li-ion The EM converts electrical energy into mechanical energy for
battery has also faced safety concerns, though, with the growing generating necessary driving torque, thus its selection is critical in
consumption in the EVs, the risk of menaces is curtailing with each devising the overall system. In the course of regenerative action, it
passing day. Also, the battery technology has progressed very directed back the electrical energy to the source (Battery). Various
gradually and lithium ions continue to remain dominant for few factors, for instance, preliminary cost, design, power density, sta-
years, though with cell chemistry improvement and ongoing bility, effectiveness, and control in a harsh environment are equally
cathode/anode material manufacturing techniques, battery costs counted in preferring the credibility of EMs (Hashernnia and Asaei,
are expected to decline very soon. Alternate lithium-ion has un- 2008). Satisfying all these features in a single EM is relatively
dergone certain promising development that might soon replace challenging, nonetheless, with the progression in power electronics
lithium-ion with aluminum graphite, graphene polymer, micro- and technologies, manufacturers are persistently acclimating their
capacitor, and sodium-based solutions. On the other hand, re- motor specifications. The EM supposed to have high output torque
searchers with the collaboration of industries are also aiming to at low speed and superior over-loading capacity. Correspondingly,
advance the Li-ion battery with 450 Wh/kg in late 2016 (Bilash, the control system of EM demanded to have an unwavering
2016). For effective EV operation, an accurate SOC estimation is response and high-power density which in recent years has
useful for prolonging battery life and preventing battery loss (Xing improved from 0.025 kW/kg to 0.16 kW/kg. Currently, four types of
Table 2
Parameters of various EVs battery.
Parameters Types of Battery
Pb-Acid NaeNiCl2 NiCd Ni-MH Li-Ion NaeS
Cell Voltage (V) 2.1 2.5 1.2 1.2 3.6 2.58

Specific Energy 35e40 70e90 50e60 60e120 170e265 180e230
(Wh/kg)
Specific Power 180 90e250 150 250e1000 1500 90e230
(W/kg)
Operating 25 245 70 65 55 300
Temperature
Cycle life 350 3000 2000 1000 1200 2500
Efficiency (%) 85 90 91 85 95 85
Safety Medium High Medium High Medium High
Manufacturer Exide, Electro source, Eurobat, FIAMM Sonick, ALCAD, Raytalk, Ovonics, Panasonic, Energizer, Toshiba, Tesla, LG, ABB, Silent Power,
Clarios, Leoch General Electric EnerSys, Mouser Sanyo, Power-Sonic AESC, Bisco NGK, BASF
! ! !
js ¼ Ls iss þ Lm isr
s
(3)
! ! !
jr ¼ Lm iss þ Lr isr
s
(4)
The symbol s shows that the equations are specified in the
stationary reference frame. In the above equations, uk is the angular
velocity, subscript m represents the mutual inductance, and jss ; jsr
are the flux linkage (Wb-t). The EVs propulsion is indisputably
concomitant to the EM specifications, thus, the carmakers tempting
for the motor substitutions required only the desire motor and its
control circuits (Salem, 2013). On the other hand, the top EM
manufacturers including Siemens, Toshiba, ABB, Nidec Motor,
AMETEK, Franklin Electrics, General Electric, etc. with the associa-
tion of researchers have improved their motor specifications with
days passed. Table 4 depicts the modeling and application of the
four most employed EM for EV propulsion.
2.3. ICE modeling
In the ICE, the combustion of gasoline fuels produces the

required mechanical energy for vehicle propulsion. The ICE com-
prises a cylinder and movable piston that expands with high-
Fig. 3. Hierarchy of EM pressure gases in the combustion chambers rotates the crank-
shaft and drives the vehicle wheels. Two types of ICE are commonly
used in transport systems are reciprocating and rotary which have
Table 3
different configuration and operation. The ICE has acquired much
Parameters comparison of electric motors.
attention in the automotive industries, developed and matured
Parameters Types of Electric Motors before the invention of EV1 by GM in 1996 (Yong et al., 2015).
DC IM PM SRM Subsequently, the automotive industries are phased out switching
Power Density Moderate Moderate Highest High
from manufacturing the ICE based vehicles to carbon-free tech-
Cost Highest Moderate Moderate High nology. This transfer in technologies brings out new opportunities
Noise High Low Moderate Highest and obligations to the industries (Altenburg, 2014). Toyota Prius is
Range High Moderate High Highest one of the aftermaths of the technology shift that acquired a wide-
Weight Highest High Low Moderate
reaching reputation in his first year of introduction. Afterward,
Control Highest High Moderate Moderate
Efficiency Moderate High Highest High automotive industries are launching HEVs and PHEVs that employ
Reliability Moderate Moderate High High ICE together with battery packs. Therefore, precise modeling of ICE
Max. Speed Moderate High Moderate Highest required an extensive acquaintance of the cylinder, piston, spark
Torque Ripples Low Moderate High Highest ignition, intake, and exhaust design that can efficiently work with
Controller Cost Highest High Moderate High
Starting Torque Moderate Highest High High
the battery technology. In other words, the ICE design stratagem
Maintenance Cost Highest Low Moderate Moderate takes into account the SoC of the battery so that the EVs re-
Power-Weight Ratio Low Moderate Highest High quirements are always realized. Consider the block diagram of ICE
Technology Maturity High High Moderate Moderate shown in Fig. 4 in which a stipulated torque and speed are
requested by EMC and the consequences are to be presented as an
increase in effective fuel and torque. The theoretical energy avail-
EM (DC, IM, PM, and SRM) shown in Fig. 3 are widely employed for able from the ICE in keeping with the Willans Model is (Rizzoni
EVs that possess principally distinct motor geometries (Salem, et al., 1999),
2013).
The parameters detail of these four types of EM are illustrated in Eout ¼ eEin Eloss (5)
Table 3. From the results, it is revealed that each motor has edged
over others for a definite parameter, thus, selecting an EM to Where e represents the conversion efficiency (%) and Eloss are en-
depend on the requirement and specification of EVs. ergy losses (J) due to engine frictions. The total efficiency of the ICE
The generalized mathematical equations of the EM are derived is the ratio between output and input including losses.
from the Kirchhoff and Newton laws as (Doncker et al., 2011),
Energyout eEin Eloss E
h¼ ¼ ¼ e loss (6)
Energyin Ein Ein
!
! ! d jss ! Obtaining the torque equations from the available energy, let
Uss ¼ Rs , irs þ þ juk jss (1) consider Cp the fuel chemical energy, he the engine efficiency (%)
dt
and ⍵a is the engine speed (rad/s) then.
! !
he Cp ¼ he Y_f Cv (7)
! ! d jsr
Urs ¼ Rr , irr þ j uk Pb um jsr (2)
dt Where Y_f is volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and Cv is the calorific fuel
value (J/kg). The available torque (N.m) can be found as,
Table 4
Electric motor models and applications.
Model Type of Motor Applications
Ste˛ pniewski et al. (2015) DC Fiat: Panda, Electra

Mazda: Bongo
PSA: Peugeot Citroen, Berlingo
Reva: G-Wiz
(Makrygiorgou and Alexandridis, 2019; Goss et al., 2012) PM Nissan: Leaf, Tino, Altra
Honda: Insight, Accord, EV Plus Toyota: Prius
BMW: E1, i3, E2
Chevrolet: Bolt EV
Kia: Soul EV
Audi: e-tron, Q5
Tesla: Model 3
(Fan et al., 2002; Liu, 2015) IM Tesla: Roadster, Model S, Model X
BMW: Mini E, X5
GM: EV1, Chevy Volt. Impact 4
Chevrolet: Silverado
Renault: Kangoo
Imperia: GP
Toyota: RAV4
Reva: G-Wiz i
Nissan: FEV
Husain and Islam (1999) SRM Chloride Lucas
Holden: ECOmmodore
free-wheeling diodes are commonly used-up devices in the PEC

that have high power, efficiency, and electromagnetic compatibility
requirements particularly in the integrated circuit of the EM, BMS,
DTM, and EV propulsion control (Yaramasu et al., 2015). The func-
tion of the PEC to transforms and regulates the available power into
the anticipated output power, thus, an accurate circuit strategy can
moderate the converter harmonics. The AC/DC in conjunction with
DC/DC converter transmutes the AC grid power to be stored in the
battery which is subsequently through the motor drive fed to the
motor for EV propulsion (Onar et al., 2013). Though, during
regenerative braking, the flow of power is in the reverse direction
from motor to the battery packs (Zhang and Cai, 2018) which can be
comprehended from Fig. 5. The stored battery power can be also
utilized for the EV loads such as light, operating AC and heater, and
Fig. 4. Block diagram of ICE (Mapelli and Tarsitano, 2012).
ventilation system. Worldwide manufacturers are offering PEC
solution for EVs with a wide range of applications. Table 5 provides
statistics about the applications and some of the top manufacturers
Y_f producing different types of PEC. Each converter has been designed
Tavi ¼ e Cv (8)
ua and tested by researchers to achieve optimal performance, lower
costs, improve efficiency, and electromagnetic intrusion outcomes.
The fuel volume can be further explained as, In all, the required features can be the same, however, based on
their use on the integrated EV circuit, the researchers have set the
ðt
mandatory specifications for each converter. The researchers have,
Yf ¼ Yf ;int fc dt (9) for example, observed that the DC/DC converters need to be more
0 efficient, cost-effective, high power efficiency and also have small
ripples to raise or decrease the voltage level (Sakka et al., 2011).In a
Where Yf int represents the initial volume (m3) and fc is the fuel further study, the authors found that a DC/AC converter needed to
consumption (L/h) for creating the required torque. It is also operate in multi-process systems with a simple design, stable
worthwhile to note that fuel consumption also emits CO2 to the control, and good conversion efficiency (Feng and Yutao, 2018).
atmosphere. Thus,
MCo2 3. Challenges for EVs in Pakistan

CO2 ¼ fc rc 4 (10)
Mc
This section deals with some of the principal obstacles to the
Where MCO2 , Mc are the molar mass (kg/mol), rc is the carbon large-scale adaptation of EVs in Pakistan. There are many barriers in
content in fuel (%) and 4 is incomplete combustion. integrating and to cope EVs with low-cost generic ICE cars, thus,
many of the investors, including government authorities, car man-
ufacturers, and various venture firms, have to contribute to over-
2.4. PEC modeling coming them. The government’s policies will also have a significant
impact on the EV industry, which will promote the compliance of
Over the years, the rating and performance of power electronics manufacturers and consumers by reducing the taxes and duties. The
devices exhibited impressive progress. IGBT, MOSFET, power, and major barriers for EVs adaptations are summarized as:
Fig. 5. PEC interfaces in the EVs (Onar et al., 2013).
Table 5
Modeling and comparison of different PEC.
Reference Converter Mandatory Applications Manufacturer

Type Features
(Chakraborty et al., DC/DC The DC/DC The DC/DC converter can be exploited in the Delta, ROHM Semiconductor, AEG Power Solutions, Pico Electronics
2019; Sakka et al., converter must integrated circuit of the below listed Inc., Artesyn, RECOM, MTM Power, Traco Power, Texas Instruments
2011) have: products:
High Reliability Cellular Phones
High Operating Laptop Computers
Temperature LED power sources
High Power Power Optimizer in the wind and solar
Efficiency plant
Low Conduction Regenerative braking of EVs
Losses EVs battery charging
Cost Effective Embedded Camera
Personal navigation device
(Feng and Yutao, DC/AC The DC/AC The DC/AC converter can be exploited in the €
Samlex, Duracell, AIMS Power, KRIEGER, Xeltronix, BESTEK,
2018; Tani et al., converter must integrated circuit of the below listed Energizer, STANLEY FATMAX, Denso, Hitachi, Toshiba, SMA America
Improved Power EV Battery Changing
Factor Computers
Simple Design Driving AC/DC motor
High Conversion The optimizer in the wind and solar plant
Efficiency DC transmission system
Rugged Control Used in UPS
Scheme Motor speed control
Low Switching Refrigerator compressor
Losses HVDC power transmission
Induction heating
(Lee and Bak, 2018; AC/AC The AC/AC The AC/AC converter can be exploited in the Schaefer, Delta, ACSOON, Sanyu, DELEXI, Sophpower, Digicom,
Hosseini et al., converter must integrated circuit of the below listed Acromag, Wago Corporation, Unitron, XP Power
Highly Compact Diesel electric propulsion
Light Weight Soft Starting of IM
Low Cost VAR Generators for PF Correction
High AC Motor Drives
Performance EVs Charging
Improved Power Static AC Switches
Factor EVs Light Control
Least Torque Industrial Heating
Ripple
(Koushki et al., 2016; AC/DC The AC/DC The AC/DC converter can be exploited in the Emerson, Eltek, MEGA Electronics, Triad Electronics, Samlex
Parvez et al., 2014) converter must integrated circuit of the below listed America, Cosel, XP Power, Quail Electronics
have: products:
High reliability Cell Phone Charger
Low Television
Electromagnetic Power Supply
Interference Used in UPS
High Operating EV battery Charging
Temperature Motor Drives
Low Leakage DC transmission system
Current
3.1. Policymaking technology back to the country. The announcement by the regu-
latory bodies specifies that over a five-year cycle roughly 100k EVs
Clean and green power is needed around the world as FFV ex- will be purchased from different parts of the world (Electric
hausts pose environmental and health risks. EVs are indeed the Vehicles, 2019). The intention is to turn nearly 30% of vehicles
clean energy drives being launched all across the globe, however, into EVs by 2030 by adding only 1% of the general sales tax on the
Pakistan has still not rendered the same commitment to the imports of various parts which, apart from cutting the CO2 emis-
development of EVs in such precarious situations. Pakistan may sion, contribute to saving as a minimum Rs. 2 billion of fossil fuels
adopt enacting policies to encourage EV producers and consumers that otherwise burden on the state budget.
to enforce and embrace this emerging technology. The recom-
mended policies are as follows; 3.1.2. Charging infrastructure policy
For the expanded use of EVs in Pakistan, involving EV’s stations
3.1.1. Capital and tax subsidies in every realistic range on the highways, motorways and local
The capital outlays of the EVs are virtually double that of FFVs, roads, is an important consideration for capital expenditure in
but the running outlay is about one-third, which is a significant charging stations. The basic frameworks and social standards for
advantage over the FFVs (Tseng et al., 2013). There is currently no the physical system have been addressed in (Schroede and Traber,
clear difference between the CBU, SKD, and CKD for vehicle parts 2012), hence the need for reliable energy without any load shed-
importation. Consequently, the duties and taxes on the EVs can be ding to prevent hassles for the users. To boost governance, it is
reduced to a total of 5 percent to mitigate the cost of capital to an crucial to implement intelligent metering at each EV charging
optimal price. Hence, the government will, therefore, take action by station to better control and monitor the power level with an
providing relief on CBU imports, whereas subsequently the pro- efficient billing system. Also, to maximize the full use of charging
ducers of EVs should be completely supported in the localization stations, more options with several chargers are required at each
and importation of CKD components. Moreover, registration of EVs station, such as slow and fast charging ports with different charging
and token tax shall be reduced by the federal and local govern- rates. Users can benefit from the privileges of slow charging ports at
ments to indorse EVs as a substitute for FFVs. The GOP also needs to lower rates without rush; fast charging ports using more energy to
build and delegate industrial areas for producers of energy goods in recharge the battery and need less time completely will be helped
which permits are given on land for 5e10 years. In 2019, GOP hustled clients. An obstacle to the proliferation of charging stations
approved a tax exemption of 50% for HEVs with engine capacity of on the market involves a large investment (Schroede and Traber,
up to 1800 cc and 25% for 1800e2500 cc high-capacity cars 2012), but more stations will expand to encourage collaborations
(Vehicles, 2019). In the case of EVs, exemptions can only be between public and private corporations in this field. Also, several
established by the government’s governing bodies and assistance options still exist to determine how the total cost of investment in
can be given to the highest level to draw producers and consumers charging stations can be minimized (Barzani et al., 2014). Public-
to this efficient technology. State provides subsidies and insurance private companies in homes, offices, and malls will create the
on the purchase of EVs in most foreign countries because they have charging stations of EV to offer customers better service. Once
set a climate-change target by dwindling CO2 emissions (Kevany, sufficient EVs are available, the charging network companies can
2018). The government support can promote the sales of EVs and make little profit, although initial costs can effectively be subsi-
address the market failure that would otherwise maintain EVs level dized by government agencies. The below mentioned major legis-
remain below optimum. Financial incentives impact the transition lative and regulatory aspects need to be discussed by the state
level of EVs, and that EV exposure has a corresponding effect on (Wiederer and Philip, 2010).
consumer interests. Most of the countries have already given sub- Implementation of standards by government regulators: There are
sidies on the implementation of EVs to stimulate the consumer for no accepted specifications in the world for EV charging devices
purchase and use as highlighted in Table 6. The GOP proposed its (Teichmann et al., 2012), consequently, a standardized framework
first-ever communications strategy for taking carbon-free green is crucial for the development of a particular design and
Table 6
EVs incentive plan of various countries.
Countries Policies Incentive’s Amount Year Incentive’s Type Observations
Austria Klima: aktiv program US$4500 for EVs 2007 Purchase incentive Revised every two years
Belgium Green Vehicle Incentive US$12,200 for BEVs 2011 Income tax credit Applicable for 12 months
Canada Electric Vehicle Incentive Program US$4600 for PHEVs and US$7900 for 2010 Purchase incentive Applicable for 36 months
BEVs
China New Energy Vehicles US$7634 for PHEVs and US$9281 for 2010 Purchase incentive Target of 0.5 million by 2015
BEVs
France Bonus-Malus From US$444- US$7400 for all EVs 2007 Purchase incentive Increases every year
Germany Green Car Incentive From US$3390-US$5650 for all EVs 2016 Purchase incentive US$560 reduction every year
Ireland SEAI Grant Scheme US$6500 for both BEVs and PHEVs 2011 Purchase rebate Number of vehicles increased each
year
Italy Ecobonus Scheme US$2800 for PHEVs and US$6700 for 2019 Purchase incentive Applicable for 36 months
BEVs
Japan Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion US$2800 for PHEVs and US$3200 for 2009 Tonnage and Acquisition of tax Applicable for 36 months
Measure BEVs credit
Sweden Super Green Car Rebate US$ 30,00 for PHEVs and USD$6000 2012 Purchase rebate Applicable for 48 months
for BEVs
Spain Efficient Vehicle Incentives Program From US$2500-US$8800 for all EVs 2012 Purchase incentive Revised after every two years
United Plugged-in Car scheme US$7600 for PEVs 2011 Purchase incentive Applicable for 36 months
Kingdom
USA Energy Improvement and Extension US$5000 for PHEVs and US$75,00 for 2009 Federal (IRS) tax credit Phase out selling 0.2 million car/
BEVs manufacturer
configuration for EVs, besides charging network purveyors. Several on the initial purchase of the EVs (Wikipedia, 2019). In 2008, the
specifications such as SAE: J177229 and IEC: 6219630 are currently Chinese Foreign Ministry and taxation declared that when buying a
already calling for implementing charging policies for EV charging new EV, it would be possible to exempt clients from the standard
facilities in several different countries. This is known that this lack tax (Tang, 2017). In 2009, China has also introduced an 18 months
of accountability does not exist because of technical insecurities, plan to provide discounts for purchasers who bought new EVs,
but because the internationally recognized bodies do not have a which were subsequently expanded in 2010 from 735 to 2647
proper regulatory structure. GOPs that plan to evolve quickly, dollars in the scope of the class and engine capacity. Likewise, the
therefore, need to build standards and policies for themselves. US government launched an incentive to buy first PEVs of 2.5k to
Policies for selling electricity and financing EVs infrastructures: 7.5k that same year until the manufacturers sell 200k EVs (Electric
Local municipalities have a pivotal contribution to make in various Vehicles, 2018).
aspects of EV charging infrastructure, from regulation to public All suppliers and consumers accept these opportunities and
spending in charging infrastructure to offering subsidies. Though, rebates, so both China and the USA have achieved their sales ex-
the policy turmoil will have theoretically negatively affect the pectations in just a couple of years. The GOP did not take steps to
development of charging infrastructure in these areas. Government subsidize the purchase of new EVs and therefore consumers don’t
intervention of energy purchases is indeed a major policy confusion see any resources to buy EVs at such high prices. GOP has recently
if the charging service suppliers (including power utility com- declared that the importation of EVs will be paid 1 percent of the
panies) turn out to be controlled bodies. Therefore, to identify general sales tax, but such initiatives can only support the manu-
electricity selling prices and the incentives which consumers can factures and the top ranks peoples (Policy, 2019). Such policies have
get from power restored to the grid, GOP must create policies to little effect on enlightening EV adaptation in Pakistan, and the
address the above-mentioned vulnerability. This policy can be government’s goal to substitute FFVs with EVs by 2025 may not be
analogous to Section 25232 of the US assembly, whereby the CPUC accomplished by the end of the year.
asked to develop regulations for the assessment of the EVs charging For both consumers and manufacturers, the GOP must establish
infrastructures (Bill, 2019). These are the absolute greatest mea- a new strategy where monetary profits can be divided into different
sures that can be taken to draft legislation. areas. According to the MOCC that certain elements have sought to
Authorization of EV charging stations: The GOP will need to undermine the new EV policy introduced by the Federal govern-
stipulate opportunities for cheap electricity or discounts (same in ment in November 2019 (Today, 2020). These local car manufac-
China and the US) so that the financial prudence of paying network turers being active in the oversight of policy alongside its few
companies will strengthen. Eventually, different lenders can business consolidators. This is because the majority of the fuel-
finance the charging stations, including provincial and state bodies, oriented cars manufactured in Pakistan do not suit the markings.
corporate industries, or even a mixture of them all. A poll of pro- After all, they have Euro-II engines built into the vehicle. A vehicle
spective EVs customers showed that due to the shortage of costing US$ 3500 in India is forced to sell over US$ 6500 in Pakistan,
charging infrastructure, the clients refused to purchase EVs, which also eschewed the latest technology and healthy driving
whereas, absence of fast-chargers are also affected the sales (Paul, facilities. GOP will also, therefore, recognize the impact of the local
2016). Therefore, charging facilities are necessary for EVs to get car manufacturer on EV policies and reinforce them to avoid any
and a charging station is a priority at home, and the second pre- delay in the EV transition. In the first instance, the purchasers can
cedence is the accessibility at public spaces. With response to these earn mainly tax rebates and EV discounts and also include a free tax
situations, the GOP needs to approve an EVs procurement plan and on highways and reduced energy rates. Furthermore, policymakers
an authority for the recovery from EVs customers need to be must also introduce monetary incentives for producers, including
postulated. Various OEMs, particularly in China and the US, are also lowering sales tax based on the CO2 emissions as well as incentives
looking for authorities that stipulate incentives in this sector. For for EVs manufacturing and parts. According to PAMA, automotive
instance, Shenzhen providing EV purchasers grants of up to RMB specialists frequently seek to limit the imports to 30%, while Paki-
20K for vehicle insurance and charging infrastructures. Corre- stan’s local automotive authorities manufacture the remaining 70%
spondingly, Los Angeles has revealed an incentive for house (Articles, 2019). Since the EVs battery is the biggest obstacle to
charging infrastructure of up to 2k dollars for its first 5k clients. pricing, batteries are best manufactured locally in Pakistan to
Nevertheless, in Pakistan, vagueness regarding power companies reduce overall costs and the government must reduce energy rates
and federal aid policies for investment in charging infrastructures in charging stations, rendering them more convenient to the
may serve as an obstacle for foreign investors, thus, states are consumers.
strongly suggested to issue such policies for promoting EVs
adaptions. 3.2. Research and development
3.1.3. EVs prices policy The EV sector will be given a boost via the regulatory framework
Monetary incentives, like tax discount or excise duty, have and the promotion of R&D opportunities. In the first step, a coun-
become an important strategy for reducing the initial prices of EVs try’s main resource, manpower, with tremendous knowledge of
and encourage technological developments. Amid such possible technologies in the field of EV has to be impeccable, and subse-
benefits, the upfront costs of EVs in Pakistan are substantially quently, to encourage the business of growing infrastructures, this
higher in comparison to FFVs with the same engine capacity, which awareness must be applied. At present, students of engineering
suggests that different customers are not willing to be paid to build universities are unable to adapt to new technologies and rely on
a huge marketplace (Hidrue et al., 2011). Also, because of battery older modules, thwart them from becoming aware of modern so-
technology constraints and increased battery prices, EVs are quite ciety. Therefore, foreign EVs bursaries need to be granted and the
expensive and a deterrent to price optimization. The cost analysis of technical targets for batteries, electrical transmission systems, and
some of the automobiles manufactured or imported into Pakistan is light-weighting systems for research industries, organizations, and
shown in Table 7. The statistics confirm that in Pakistan the price of corporate sectors should be explicitly stated. In the United States,
EVs is somehow over twice the cost of other types, the greatest innovations in technologies involve study and developments on
obstacle to EVs transmission technologies. The majority of states various EV parts are specified. The government initiated the project
had already granted incentives in the shape of duty exemption or and brought together local companies, research labs. and certain
Table 7
Cost comparison of various vehicles in Pakistan.
Brand Model Type Battery Type Output Power (hp) Mileage (Km/L) Cost (million Pkr)
Suzuki Ciaz 1.4 FFV n.a 91 14 2.30

Toyota Corolla 1.3 FFV n.a 84 13 2.74
Honda City 1.5 FFV n.a 120 14.5 2.80
Toyota Corolla Altis FFV n.a 120 14 3.14
Honda Civic 1.8 FFV n.a 141 14 3.65
Honda Freed 1.5 HEV Li-ion 140 25 4.55
Honda Vezel 1.5 HEV Li-ion 160 25 4.92
Toyota RAV4 HEV NiMH 219 23 6.08
Toyota Prius 1.8 HEV Li-ion 121 25 6.34
Toyota Camry XLE HEV NiMH 176 22 7.12
Honda Clarity PHEV Li-ion 174 42 5.51
Subaru Crosstrek PHEV Li-ion 137 30 5.79
Hyundai Ioniq 1.6 PHEV Li-ion 147 57 7.00
Lexus RX 450h PHEV NiMH 259 30 8.43
Volvo S90 T8 PHEV Li-ion 313 29 10.42
Honda Clarity FCEV Fuel Cell 174 68 9.65
Chevrolet Bolt 5dr BEV Li-ion 200 108 6.78
Hyundai Kona-EV BEV Li-ion 201 118 7.41
Renault ZOE BEV Li-ion 134 105 10.31
Tesla Model X BEV Li-ion 518 99 14.39
Tesla Model S BEV Li-ion 762 102 16.93
universities selected for or submitting bids. Similarly, various with domestic industries and government institutions, the GOP
technologies need to be standardized to facilitate innovations: the faces acute challenges as the local companies are outsourcing their
SAE has established two different hydrogen fuel cell standards: the automation projects from third parties, generally external manu-
SAE J2601 and the SAE-J2799 (Ponticel, 2014). Japan centered its facturers. Hence, to highlight EVs technology and encourage citi-
attention on battery technology and expanded innovation in zen’s awareness about EVs through diverse initiatives, the state
lithium-ion and fuel cells, through creating a joint development needs to join small-medium sized industries with public in-
center for government, industry, and institutions in 2015. Germany stitutions. Through this cooperation of institutions and industries,
has established an Innovation Enhancement framework under students can conduct realistic development projects that will
which four Ministers (Ministry of Infrastructure, Education, advance the industrial process and automation systems. In
Transport, and the environment) have designated to govern EV response, regardless of the use of higher training costs, domestic
innovations under a partnership with leading industries and civil industries will be able to take advantage of relatively low auto-
organizations (Zhang et al., 2014). The GOP should also continue to mation costs and will continue to enhance their R & D in the future.
fund the R&D in EVs for subsequent years and take the competitive The local industries can also assist the government economy by
edge of knowledge and acquaintance by foreign companies exporting quality products through technology transfer. Thus,
including China, the US, and Germany. At present, in coordination strategies must be formulated to enhance R&D to support student
Fig. 6. R&D Provisions for EVs adoption.

work on EV engineering and to realizing awareness in collaboration generate good revenue on the market. The GOP aims to introduce
with car manufacturers and institutions. Fig. 6 provides the details 30 percent of vehicles on road as EVs, thus helping service pro-
of R&D requirements for EVs adaptation in Pakistan. viders and pouring additional money into the EVs industry to raise
more revenues. Besides, in every 9 km2 area in the major cities and
3.3. Wide-scale installation of charging infrastructure every 20 km on all motorways, the government is constructing fast-
charge stations. Hence, more electricity will penetrate the market,
Adapting EVs to the country may not be the greatest challenge, but it takes time, so the key question is when and how quickly
but to broaden it out of low to high scales. If customers accepted consumers switch to EVs. This depends mainly on state policies and
EVs with adopters but it is almost difficult to charge due to the developments in product adjustment as well as technological
massive shortage of charging capacity, public support will be ut- advancement.
terly reversed (Deventer et al., 2015). Thus, one of the main con- Charging Choice: Another significant factor in the charging
cerns is the installation of charging stations all over the places, infrastructure is how long a given battery would take the load,
subsequently, mammoth financing is needed to implement this which would perceptibly depend on the form of chargers used and
technology. Two forms of charging infrastructure, including long- the initial charge of the battery (Lokesh and Min, 2017). The ar-
distance (town-town) and subway (within the town) networks, chitecture of EVs charging station where every charging station has
are primarily required. The long-distance infrastructures required three options: slow, fast, and rapid charger, thus, the users are
charging stations mounted on highways and motorways and the therefore charged based on the charging options they choose. The
feasible length must not exceed every 100 km to reduce EV’s range specifications and the battery charge times needed for each charger
anxiety. Subway networks have stations in shopping areas, petrol are provided in Table 8. To verify the viability of constructing an EV-
pumps, train stations, and residential areas. Together with the charge station, the location where the charging station will be built
deployment of its charging point, significant resources are needed has to be upgraded according to the standard specifications of the
for the above-mentioned massive deployment of EVs in- charger as well as a practical assessment of stations, buildings, and
frastructures. Since the public-private collaborations are the pri- residences.
mary solution to this problem, therefore, the initial infrastructure
should be financed by a policy that promotes public-private part- 3.4. Grid load balancing
nerships. The key determinants for the EV infrastructure are;
Range anxiety: The concern about the range is the suspicion that Another major challenge for EVs adaptation is the grid-level
customers will be unable to charge off on highways. This is a psy- balance of power, as a large number of EVs charges needed enor-
chological condition that every user is aware of as completely mous power. Since electricity can’t be stored in large quantities,
draining off of a battery may be evil during a long drive with no matching power demand and supply in the network, therefore,
charging station nearby. The charging stations need to be installed plays a key role in achieving the promise of reliability for EVs
at optimum distances on highways and some of them will not be consumers. The PNNL has investigated that the current U.S. elec-
utilized mostly, but still, it will give minimize the range anxiety of tricity grid could accommodate 73 percent of PHEVs charges while
consumers. A poll of the group of researchers with range concern annual energy consumption of more than 910 billion kWh, repre-
showed that the fears of distance and the ability to charge, the first senting nearly 24 percent of total energy output, will be required
concern for the buying of EVs (Evarts, 2013). The US legislation for charging more vehicles. Similarly, rapid charging stations have
reacts to the consumer apprehension, offering the highest support also a significant influence on the grid distribution system due to
for U.S. road authorship programs for the public EVs charging high energy demands, i.e. more than twice the average household
points (Anxiety, 2019). load. Concerning the challenges of grid viability, several severe is-
Degree of convenience charging: The level of comfort shows the sues must be addressed when charging EVs on the grid. The use of
extent to which an EV is charging commercially compared to home coal or thermal-based plant to charge EVs will likely raise the CO2
charging. When a car uses the home charge station more than the emissions and reduces the impact of energy transitions. A survey
commercial charging station, the low level of convenience will be indicated that coal-powered EVs will increase GHG by 17%e27%
shown. Less investment will be needed for such an approach as compared with diesel and gasoline ICEVs (Hawkins et al., 2013).
most users will utilize their home charging stations. The high level Hence, the framework of the energy sector will also be updated to
of convenience charging requires more use of commercial charging achieve the target of complete reductions in GHG emissions by the
points than domestic filling stations, and in this particular instance, current consumption of electricity. Moreover, the grid’s energy and
enormous investments in charging infrastructure are necessary to consumption disparities devastate the grid, transformer, and sub-
neutralize the need of consumers. A study revealed that, whether stations capability and can lead to serious problems of power
charging stations are installed at their office or travel destinations, quality, increase in harmonics, transformer losses, line heating, and
71.7 percent of respondents were more inclined to take EVs (Krupa reactive power consumption. Thus, to get the benefit of the EVs
et al., 2014). transitions, the GOP has to increased power capacity from renew-
Adaptation rate: The level of adjustment demonstrates how able energy resources and implements coordinate charging at
many EVs are now on the road and use the charging points. The every highways and motorway station. Pakistan has a fragile power
facts show that whenever profitability and the use of any com- distribution network that is subjected to different climate com-
modity accelerates, investors are drawn to raise more money to plaints such as a shortage of electricity sustained with long-
Table 8
Charger types and its specifications.
Charger Details Charging time
Types Power (kW) Voltage (V) Battery 10e20(kWh) Battery 20e50(kWh) Battery 50e75(kWh)
Slow Less than 7 220 (AC) 4h 4h 40 min
Fast 7 to 22 400 (AC) 11 h 6h 1h
Rapid More then 43 400 (AC) þ DC 21 h 8h 2h
standing failure, the poor conductive material and weak grid cost of upgrading building resources is very critical and this chal-
infrastructure (Asghar, 2018). Consequently, the sudden and un- lenge can be neutralized by governments and private stakeholders.
expected penetration of the EVs into Pakistan requires considerable Technical advice and understanding by users and non-users are a
attention in the reconstruction and management of the power medium-term challenge of moderate priority and low priority is
system network. The federal government approved the draft policy attached to ownership of EV ownerships. Incentive policy and
in November 2019 (Ministry of Industries an, 2016) for the rebate programs, which will lead to large-scale use of EVs adoption,
deployment of 30% EVs in the country which is estimated to be should be addressed both by federal and provincial governments.
900k units by 2030. The policy further outlines an expansion in Clients and manufacturers alike should be taken into account by
renewable energy output including wind, solar, biomass, and hy- the policies and deciding the factors that affect the adaptation of
dropower, to minimize CO2 by 2030, in line with the Paris Agree- EVs technology.
ment. The overall energy prerequisites estimated in (Arshad and In addition to the governmental domain, alliances can be crucial
Ullah, 2019) to meet the EVs charges will be 1 GW and, conse- in tackling certain obstacles, especially educational and awareness
quently, by the end of 2030, a total of 15 GW of electricity will be initiatives that need not include monetary subsidies or rewards,
produced from renewable energy sources, which will not only such as large financial investments. Enhanced education and
satisfy domestic demand for electricity but also be utilized in awareness can promote the purchasing of EVs profitably, firstly,
charge stations for EVs. evaluation of EVs is carried out, thus bringing the effectiveness of
EVs to the interest of users. This can include day-to-day financial
3.5. Summary benefits (fuel-saving, lubricating), low maintenance costs, flexi-
bility, convenience, security, and a regenerative braking system.
Certain considerations, including future regulations, subsidies, Secondly, awareness of the effects of GHG emissions, air and noise
charging prices, reliability, and security, and forms of charging are pollution, and global warming may lead to an increase in EV
equally valuable for the widespread adoption of EVs. Therefore, an attitudes.
analysis must be carried out to understand the characteristics and
variables associated with the decision of a consumer to purchase an 4. Opportunities for EVs in Pakistan
EV and how customers judge the differences across range issues,
charging preferences, and their preferred place. Table 9 provides The use of EV has made things easier to upgrade automobiles
detail of the key challenges in adapting EVs to Pakistan. All the and their related systems, like the power system, while at the same
barriers are prioritized based on their need at long, medium, and time viewing EVs as the future of transportation. Charging network
short term. The main obstacles are the financial and technical and battery technology have also been improved, which minimize
barriers in Pakistan, since enormous investment is necessary to the charging time and increase the efficiency of EVs technology. As
adapt EVs from its very early stage, and the additional burdens on a consequence, increasing numbers of suppliers, state agencies,
national network and local infrastructure also create technical stakeholders, and city planners are agreed that EVs adaptations will
hurdles. Regional charging points, office buildings, and residences surely deliver better outcomes to both business and the customers.
have structural constraints and all these changes require huge re- Some of the opportunities associated with EV adaptations for
sources, which are also financial and technological barriers. The Pakistan are provided below:
Table 9
Barriers to EVs adaption in Pakistan.
Challenge Measure Type Implementation Body Priority
Financial
Subsidies to customers and industries Financial National/Provincial High
Capital cost of EVs charging infrastructure and deployment Financial National/Provincial High
Purchase of Land for charging stations Financial National/Provincial Medium
Cost of Land Lease Financial National/Provincial Low
Cost on station upgradation like building, fuel stations, and homes Financial/Technical Provincial Government High
Cost on required energy generation Financial/Technical Federal Government Medium
Cost of regular maintenance of charging stations Financial/Technical National/Provincial Government High
Technical
Acquiring technical skills Technical Federal Government High
Grid to station interface Technical Federal Government High
Charging system compatibility to utility Technical/Awareness Provincial Government/Local High
Buildings, homes and fuel station limitations Technical/Awareness Provincial Government/Local Medium
Administrative
Governance and marketing Educational/Awareness/Regulatory Federal Government High
Multiple venue constraints Awareness/Regulatory Federal Government Low
Safety and security reliance Awareness/Regulatory Federal Government Medium
Public Acceptability
Higher cost perception Educational/Awareness Provincial Government/Local High
Reliability concern Educational/Awareness Provincial Government/Local High
Ownership of EVs installations Technical/Financial/Regulatory Provincial Government/Local Low
No support from EV non-users Awareness/Educational Provincial Government/Local Medium
Less understanding of EV Technology Awareness/Educational Provincial Government/Local Low
Regulatory
Lack of policies Regulatory Federal Government High
Public guidance Educational/Regulatory Federal/Provincial Government Medium
Research and development Regulatory/Technical Federal/Provincial Government Medium
4.1. Economic development opportunity
The continuously improving factor in human well-being-from

health and employment to education and the quality of life con-
tinues to be supported by economic development (Opportunities,
2019). EV adaptations can, just as with any conservative emerging
technology, provide Pakistan with a range of promising opportu-
nities for economic prosperity. Hence, a constructive and reliable
strategy is therefore important for controlling transitional conse-
quences and optimizing the advantages of integrated growth. This
segment gives a brief rundown of the possible advantages of EVs
adaptions for Pakistan’s economy.
4.1.1. Increased employment prospects

Today, despite education, numerous peoples in Pakistan are
experiencing prevalent and lasting unemployment is a major
macroeconomic concern. Widespread adoption of EVs would un-
doubtedly lead to increased competition for current and new
employment, whereas manufacturers of batteries and chargers will Fig. 7. Oil price inflation in Pakistan (Omer, 2018).
be the leading job creation. The NREL estimates that development
in the EVs technologies may result in over 100k jobs per year in
total, whereas alone the BCG anticipates 100k employment op-
portunities in EVs industries over the next decade (Everett et al., digitally than ICE cars, with the charging points being capable of
2010). Correspondingly, in India, the department of developing controlling the battery charge through a mobile application. Since
skills and innovation is planning to arrange sufficient manpower for the grid is almost anywhere available, you have several charging
the EVs industries. It involves the development of a skilled and choices, whether a house, road, or office, so you don’t often need to
educated labor force with profound knowledge in a battery, mar- visit a fuel station again for battery charging. Research in Berlin
keting, distribution, and EVs network design (Workforce fors found that, as they travel for 140e160 Km, more than 94 percent of
industr, 2015). Most of EVs corporate industries have recorded peoples are comfortable with EVs features, whereas, in the UK, EVs
strong employee engagement, increased performance as well as have enhanced performance standards including initial speed, vi-
higher recruitments. Some job losses are also recorded in the pe- bration, fluency, reactivity and movement comfort (Skippon and
troleum and refining industries, but according to the analysis of AIE, Garwood, 2011). The regenerative EVs braking is also a distinctive
a migration to EVs could produce twice as many new job oppor- feature for the users, in which the system’s deceleration is valuable
tunities as the loss of the ICE (Bannon, 2018). Table 10 provides and boosts the driving performance in more congested traffic
comprehensive analyzes of unemployment before and after an (Cocron et al., 2011). A survey indicates that almost 27 percent of
evaluation of the NREL, taking the estimated parameters of the Pakistan’s road accidents have been due to mechanical and brake
population and the rate of unemployment from the CEIC data failures (Rizwan et al., 2018), thus, with less mechanical compo-
(Unemployment Rate, 2019). Thus, to fully adopt EVs technologies, nents and a regenerative braking system of EVs, losses can, there-
the government, industries, and academic bodies will need to fore, be reduced. Another report reveals that the noise levels of
commit adequate resources for employee education and skills to Pakistan are in the range of 72e86 dB, far above safe limits and
meet the demand for new employments. traffic, industry and machinery are the primordial variables
(Younes and Ghaffar, 2012). Since EVs are powered by batteries and
4.1.2. Enhanced living standard have low noise in engines that can improve both pedestrians and
Like most other cars, EVs offer significant features, including drivers mobility more effectually. About safety, EVs are better than
flexibility, comfort, security, sound acceleration, and also have ICE vehicles as there is no front-engine so that the risk of explosion
personal importance that can create expressively secure connec- and injury to occupants is minimized. Thus, taking all characteris-
tions (Steg and Slotegraaf, 2001). Notwithstanding these advan- tics into account, EVs have edged over ICE cars because it requires
tages, EVs are much cheaper to operate, very responsive and there less energy while driving a vehicle with the comprehensive fea-
is little maintenance in comparison with other cars, due to less tures of customer needs.
moving components. Moreover, EVs are usually associated more
Table 10
Pakistan employment analysis according to NERL.
Year Population (mn) Unemployment (%) NREL Analysis Unemployment after NREL Analysis
2014 186.190 6.000 0 6.000

2015 189.870 5.900 0 5.900
2016 193.56 5.958 0 5.958
2017 197.26 6.018 0 6.018
2018 200.96 6.079 0 6.079
2019 204.729 6.14 0 6.140
2020 208.57 6.202 0.1 6.059
2021 212.982 6.265 0.1 6.126
2022 216.467 6.328 0.1 6.194
2023 220.527 6.392 0.1 6.262
2024 224.664 6.457 0.1 6.330
Fig. 9. Forecast GHG emissions by Pakistan (International Institute f, 2016).
Fig. 8. Oil and petroleum demand in Pakistan (Rehman and Deyuan, 2018).
of another sector, thus, the widespread penetration of EVs in

Pakistan will have a major impact in the next few years.
4.1.3. Reduce fossil fuels dependency
At present, Pakistan’s transport sector heavily relies on oil-based 4.2. Environmental sustainability opportunity
fuels and most of which are imported from foreign countries. A
report indicates that over 13.3 billion dollars are spent annually on In the past couple of decades, the need for environmental sus-
oil imports, which in the routine business situation is forecast to tainability has raised international worries regarding climate
reach nearly 30.7 billion dollars by 2025 (Arshad and Ullah, 2019). change (Jiao and Evans, 2016). The overall emissions of GHGs such
Oil prices are also not perpetual but have high inflation that not as CO2 are significantly increased by human activity, as the tech-
only raises the annual cost of imports but has serious implications nological and social developments have a strong influence on
on the transport and electricity sectors. Fig. 7 presents compre- climate change. The highest growth in GHG emissions from
hensive information on oil price inflation in Pakistan over more human-induced was from 1970 to 2004, primarily from energy
than a decade. Notwithstanding, Pakistan’s transportation sectors supplies, manufacturing, and transport sectors. Pakistan’s transport
are the main ingredient of import oil consumption, which con- sector is also the biggest threat to the degradation of the country’s
sumes almost 47% of all imports, while 23% are used for generating ecosystem, given that many large cities have been identified as one
electricity. of the highly contaminated regions in the world. According to the
Fig. 8 shows that, by 2030, the transport and energy sectors will new PPGG study, Pakistan is among the 10 countries most impacted
remain to be the main energy source in petroleum consumption. by global warming where the average temperature is projected to
The majority of countries have reduced their fossil fuel dependency rise more than any other country (Salam, 2018). In 2015, PDMA
by a transition to EVs technology, for instance, China continued its estimated that over 1200 civilians died nationwide from the heat-
support for the EVs manufacturing to reduce pollution from noise, wave and 65,000 received substantial treatments. Furthermore, in
oil reliance and boost high-tech development (Tian et al., 2019). upcoming years, more passenger and freight vehicles will pollute
Meanwhile, the US eliminates nearly 80% of its gas costs and further the roads as shown in Fig. 9, and Pakistan is expected to increase its
lower sales gains through the reduction of its supplier’s economic GHG emissions to nearly 80 MtCO2e with the BAU scenario.
advantage. In another report released by AEVA, 80 percent of EVs Responding to the rise in GHG footprint, Pakistan announced in the
diffusion would save 8 billion dollars annually to Australia’s local Paris Accord that GHG emissions will be reduced by about 20% by
economy and further, boost energy security by lowering oil de- 2030, meaning that that the country has to distribute its budget
pendency over the next several decades (Storer et al., 2019). ranging from 7 to 14 billion dollars annually (Chaudhry, 2017).
Correspondingly, BCG anticipates that average energy supplies can Since then, Pakistan has committed around 6 percent of its national
contribute 3e10 billion dollars to the local economy by the tran- budget to transport and power generation, but such allocation has
sition from ICE-based cars to EVs (Baker et al., 2019). Pakistan will no reasonable impact on GHG declines. It is therefore important to
face inordinate difficulties in the coming years with a threefold rise change to a more sustainable transport system to address the
in the import price of fuels, environmental degradation, and pro- problem of GHG emissions and reduce the dependency on the
ductivity fees. Therefore, adjusting to EVs will certainly reduce budget. Various countries worldwide have implemented long-term
import oil dependency and help alleviate the country’s economy is mitigation strategies for achieving their sustainability targets,
extremely important for Pakistan. It is anticipated that transition to substituting ICE-based vehicles with EVs.
EVs can approximately recuperate 25e40% of imported oil, even Research shows that EVs emit 43 percent fewer GHGs in Ger-
though when EVs are charged by heavy fossil fuels such as coal and many than ICE vehicles, while numerous reports compare ICEV’s
gas. Moreover, EVs also have significant tangible benefits due to low life cycles with EVs. The statistic reveals that nearly half of GHG
servicing requirements and don’t imply changes in oil and other emissions from EV life cycles are linked to the production stage,
lubricants that further reduce the reliance on imported fuels. A with the battery representing 36 to 42 percent, followed by an
recent MOCC draft policy has estimated that the EVs change would electric motor of 8 percent (Krupa et al., 2014). These consequences
notably reduce the import oil bills by almost 2 billion dollars differ slightly because of multiple factors, including battery design,
annually (Raza, 2019). These initiatives would reduce the price of inventory, modeling, and production (Romare and Dahllo €f, 2017).
oil imports on the state budget that can be used for the maturation Thus, after consideration of the impact from the production phases,
the EVs emit 29 and 20 percent lower GHG emissions than gasoline ranging production chain will also grow across the entire
and diesel vehicles. Similarly, the life cycle assessment also includes competitive line in many industries, including transportation,
battery source charging, and it is estimated that the use of coal or retail, IT, telecommunications, energy, chemical, and mining. Amid
thermal power stations to charge EVs will increase carbon emis- GOP’s declaration, the Chinese company BYD signed a contract with
sions and reduce the impact of energy transitions. EVs emission will Toyota for the development of EVs in Pakistan, which is also one of
be 12% fewer than ICE vehicles if the vehicles are powered by No. 1 manufacturing companies in global sales (Ahmed, 2019). In
natural gas, whereas coal-based energy sources will be more likely another report, several Chinese car manufacturers, including Hao-
to raise emission levels of GHG by 17e27%. Recently, the GOP has hong, Weifang Shandong, Shanghai Shenlong Bus, and the Wuxi
approved an EV strategy aimed at dealing with the consequences of Shengbao EV, signed MOUs to bring EVs into the country with local
GHG emissions and providing all customers with cost-effective Pakistani companies (Auto News and Chinese electr, 2018). Also, the
mobility. The primary objective is to shift 30 percent of all vehi- CPEC is an interweaving move into Pakistan’s industrial sectors
cles, in specific cars and rickshaws from ICE to EVs by 2025, thereby which have shown a strong interest in the involvement of more
reducing GHG emissions in the future. Nonetheless, such targets foreign companies in the automotive and manufacturing industries.
can add value to certain sustainability objectives, but a zero- Therefore, the opportunity for Pakistan in the EVs revolution to
emission network must, therefore, be equally considered in the extend its existing industrial system is immense and efficient fac-
long-term stratagem. The zero-emission system prevents major tories are often to be funded by research institutes and tax in-
health consequences, eliminates global warming, and above all centives to further grow high-tech manufacturing. Besides
reduces the climate change expenditures. The government must, encouraging universities to disseminate information about indus-
therefore, also concentrate on improving ICE emission technologies trialization, a partnership between government, business,
during the transition to EVs and perform a comprehensive analysis academia, and non-commercial research institutions are necessary
of EV emissions from various sectors, including the source of bat- to grow technologically advanced industries in scarce resources.
tery charge, raw material processing, and recycling. The automobile industry has also an obligation, through rapidly
changing production capability, to stand up to Pakistan’s global
4.3. Industrial development opportunity economic growth rivalry. With such industries, there is an abun-
dance of resources that can dramatically change the refining ca-
The industry is considered as the basis for a country’s economic pacity since the Ford motor turned in the largest production facility
growth, contributing to emerging technologies, reduces inflation in just 56 days (Medema, 2019). The move from ICE to EVs would
and unemployment, and increases export trades. Countries sup- not only strengthen Pakistan’s economic structure through the
ported by advanced manufacturing facilities, high-tech innovation, expansion of different markets; they will also provide cost-
and natural resources are at the forefront of the export chain. In effectiveness for car manufacturers as many models have similar
recent decades, China has witnessed unprecedented growth, battery packs and EM.
removing barriers to a central economic slowdown, transforming it
into a global hub for manufacturing and export (Silver, 2019). 5. Conclusions
Correspondingly, Germany is growing its manufacturing capability
in the modern globalized world and is introducing Industry 4.0, a The challenges of rapid decarbonization, as demonstrated in
strategy that makes the region, the main customer and supplier of Paris Accord, is extremely essential to minimize carbon footprint to
advanced manufacturing technology. Pakistan’s industrial sector below 1.5 C worldwide, considering how quick electrifying mass
after services also makes the second-largest contribution to the transit can help mitigate climate change. It is generally accepted
domestic economy that rose 5.80 percent by 2018, compared to because we have not progressed sufficiently individually at the
5.43 percent previous year (Fatiama, 2019). Among the varied in- moment and the countries are not optimistic enough to achieve the
dustrial sectors, one of the fastest-growing sectors of Pakistan with Paris objective. Hence, to minimize CO2 emissions to gain potential
7.2 percent CAGR in the Asia-Pacific region is the automotive sector, benefits of rapid developments in EVs and to optimize these ad-
which is expected to grow up to 11.42 billion dollars by 2025 vantages, it is necessary to pursue a realistic and efficient strategy.
(Automotive and Transportati, 2019). Despite the reduction in sales This study presents a brief overview of current EVs development
in recent years, the auto industry as a result of various tariffs and and addresses several major challenges and prospects for adapta-
charges has contributed 12 billion rupees to GDP and 30 billion tion. The progression of the automobile industry is connected to the
rupees to the domestic treasuries. Nonetheless, the Pakistan auto- government’s policy: various policies lead to different mechanisms
motive industry primarily relies on ICE vehicles where old models and industries’ performance; subsidies, for instance, affect indus-
have been running the roads for decades, whereas in developing trial growth. Consequently, such incentives policies should be
countries zero-emission technology has been adapted. Several therefore interpreted as interconnected correlational chains where
developing countries, such as Norway, declared that sales of FFV the state does not consider the economic advantages but also takes
would be shut down completely by 2025 compared with similar into account the effects of manufacturing and product innovations.
schemes for 2030 in the Netherlands (Arshad and Ullah, 2019). In The technical challenges, market knowledge, and expertise in
those countries, the transportation and automotive industries have measuring and assessing the economic pros and cons of EVs and
carried out an emerging technology strategy with substantial ICEs represent another critical consideration in developing coun-
economic and technological growth opportunities. The inclusion of tries. Thus, the government needs to consolidate industries and
EVs on the road network in Pakistan will produce a new market, institutions to promote awareness of EVs through various initia-
create a variety of jobs, and play a major role in the development of tives and bursary scholarships for other countries.
the industrial sector. Before the introduction of EVs, advancements In developing countries, challenges of EVs implementation are
were solely related to products, but now manufacturers have becoming more and more apparent, and a marginally decreased life
experienced significant production improvements and efficient cycle cost and more battery price cuts will be an important part of
technology frameworks. Since EVs adopt different approaches to legitimate ICE competitiveness over the next five years. Reduced
manufacturing, the whole production chain begins to be reoriented costs through several research activities will help include large-
thus for both old and new rivals, there will be tremendous oppor- scale EV systems that offer a range of rentable opportunities,
tunities. Apart from the emerging new technologies, a wide- including market growth, sustainable environmental development,
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Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123375

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Electric vehicles and key adaptation challenges and prospects in

4.1. Economic development opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Nomenclature HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Fig. 1. GHG emission by various sectors (Mir et al., 2017).

for power generation (Naseem et al., 2019). Correspondingly, the

References Model Descriptions

The Rint Model (He et al., 2011) fVt ¼ OCV Ro :IL g

Parameters Types of Battery

Pb-Acid NaeNiCl2 NiCd Ni-MH Li-Ion NaeS

Cell Voltage (V) 2.1 2.5 1.2 1.2 3.6 2.58

2.3. ICE modeling

In the ICE, the combustion of gasoline fuels produces the

Model Type of Motor Applications

Ste˛ pniewski et al. (2015) DC Fiat: Panda, Electra

free-wheeling diodes are commonly used-up devices in the PEC

MCo2 3. Challenges for EVs in Pakistan

Fig. 5. PEC interfaces in the EVs (Onar et al., 2013).

Reference Converter Mandatory Applications Manufacturer

Countries Policies Incentive’s Amount Year Incentive’s Type Observations

Suzuki Ciaz 1.4 FFV n.a 91 14 2.30

Fig. 6. R&D Provisions for EVs adoption.

Charger Details Charging time

Challenge Measure Type Implementation Body Priority

4.1. Economic development opportunity

The continuously improving factor in human well-being-from

4.1.1. Increased employment prospects

2014 186.190 6.000 0 6.000

Fig. 9. Forecast GHG emissions by Pakistan (International Institute f, 2016).

of another sector, thus, the widespread penetration of EVs in

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