Introduction to measurement

Basic concepts
Week 1

Dr. Mohammad Nasir

 Introduction
• Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods
 Definition
• A measurement is an act of assigning a
specific value to a physical variable.
• That physical variable is the measured
variable.
• A measurement system is a tool used for
quantifying the measured variable.
 sensor
• A sensor is a physical element that employs
some natural phenomenon to sense the
variable being measured.
 transducer
• A transducer converts the sensed information
into a detectable signal. This signal might be
mechanical, electrical, optical, or it may take
any other form that can be meaningfully
quantified.
AFM example
Measurement Stages
 Measurement test plan
1. Parameter design plan.
– ‘‘What question am I trying to answer?
– What needs to be measured?’’
– ‘‘What variables and parameters will affect my results?
2. System and tolerance design plan.
– ‘‘In what ways can I do the measurement and how good do
the results need to be to answer my question?’
3. Data reduction design plan.
– ‘‘How will I interpret the resulting data? How will I use the
data to answer my question?
– How good is my answer? Does my answer make sense?’’
 Variables
• Variables are entities that influence the test.
– independent variable.
– dependent variable.
– controlled of variables
– extraneous variables

Car fuel consumption measure example

 Parameters
As an example, the flow rate, Q, developed by a
fan depends on rotational speed, n, and the
diameter, d, of the fan.
Noise and Interference
 CALIBRATION
• A calibration applies a known input value to a
measurement system for the purpose of
observing the system output value. It
establishes the relationship between the input
and output values. The known value used for
the calibration is called the standard.
 CALIBRATION
• Static Calibration (common)
• Dynamic Calibration (change with time)
 Static Sensitivity

The static sensitivity is a measure relating the change in the indicated

output associated with a given change in a static input
 Range
• A calibration applies known inputs ranging
from the minimum to the maximum values for
which the measurement system is to be used.
These limits define the operating range of the
system.
 Resolution
• The resolution represents the smallest
increment in the measured value that can be
discerned. In terms of a measurement system,
it is quantified by the smallest scale increment
or least count (least significant digit) of the
output readout indicator.
 Evaluating measurements
• To determine Error:
– The accepted value is the correct value based on
reliable references.
– The experimental value is the value measured in the
lab.
– The difference between the experimental value and
the accepted value is called the error.
–.
 Evaluating measurements
• To determine Percent Error:
– The percent error is the absolute value of the
error divided by the accepted value, multiplied by
100%.
–.
 Practice: error and percent error
Question 1
• The accepted value for the boiling point of
water is 100.0°C. In the lab, you
experimentally determined it to be 98.7°C.
What is the error and percent error?
 Practice: error and percent error
Answer 1
• Given
– Accepted value = 100.0°C
– Experimental value = 98.7°C
• Work
–.
– Error = 98.7°C - 100.0°C = -1.3°C
–.

−1.3 C
100% = 0.013 100% = 1.3%
100.0 C
Deviation plot
 Random and Systematic Errors
• Random error causes a random variation in
measured values found during repeated
measurements of a variable.
• Systematic error causes an offset between the
mean value of the data set and its true value.

Which one affects the accuracy?

 Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy
High Precision
High Precision
Low Accuracy
 Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three
targets with
three
arrows each
to shoot.
Both Precise Neither
How do
accurate but not accurate
they
and accurate nor
compare?
precise precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

 Accuracy

• Accuracy = the extent to which a measured value

agrees with a standard value
– Accuracy of a device must be checked
– Does it read a proper accepted value?
 Example: Accuracy

• Who is more accurate when measuring a book that

has a true length of 17.0 cm?
Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Precision

• Precision = the degree of exactness of a

measurement that is repeatedly recorded.
• Which set is more precise?
18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35
17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85
16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44
 Example: Precision

Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0

cm book?

Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Uncertainty
• The uncertainty is a numerical estimate of the
possible range of the error in a measurement.
In any measurement, the error is not known
exactly since the true value is rarely known
exactly.
 Why Is There Uncertainty?

• Measurements are performed with instruments,

and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
•Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?
Uncertainty
 zero-order uncertainty
• zero-order uncertainty of an instrument, is set
by international (ISO) convention to equal
one-half of its resolution. It is the smallest
uncertainty that an instrument can have.
Thus,
Graduated Cylinder –
Meniscus and Parallax
Hysteresis
Sensitivity error
Zero error
Linearity error
 Instrument Repeatability
• The ability of a measurement system to
indicate the same value on repeated but
independent application of the same input
provides a measure of the instrument
repeatability.
Overall Instrument Error and
Instrument Uncertainty
Examples
examples
examples
Significant Figures

In Measurements
 Significant Figures
At the conclusion of our time together,
you should be able to:

1. Explain what significant figures are in a

measurement
2. Determine the number of significant figures
in any measurement
 Significant Figures

The significant figures in a measurement include all of

the digits that are known, plus one last digit that is
estimated.
The numbers reported in a measurement are limited by
the measuring tool.
How many sig figs are there in a given
measurement?
 Measurement and Significant Figures

• Every experimental
measurement has a degree of
uncertainty.
• The volume, V, at right is
certain in the 10’s place,
10mL<V<20mL
• The 1’s digit is also certain,
17mL<V<18mL
• A best guess is needed for the
tenths place.
• To indicate the precision of a measurement, the
value recorded should use all the digits known
with certainty, plus one additional estimated
digit that usually is considered uncertain by plus
or minus 1.
• No further insignificant digits should be
recorded.
• The total number of digits used to express such a
measurement is called the number of significant
figures.
• All but one of the significant figures are known
with certainty. The last significant figure is only
the best possible estimate.
Below are two measurements of the
mass of the same object. The same
quantity is being described at two
different levels of precision or
certainty.
 Reading a Meterstick

. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. . cm

First digit (known) = 2 2.?? cm

Second digit (known) = 0.7 2.7? cm
Third digit (estimated) between 0.05- 0.08 cm
Length reported = 2.77 cm
or 2.76 cm
or 2.78 cm
 Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm…
• Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain

• The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)

• In the reported length, all three digits (2.77

cm) are significant including the estimated one
 Learning Check

. l8. . . . I . . . . I9. . . . I . . . . I10. . cm

What is the length of the line?
1) 9.31 cm
2) 9.32 cm
3) 9.33 cm
How does your answer compare with your neighbor’s
answer? Why or why not?
Always estimate ONE place past the
smallest mark!

11.5 mL
So how many sig figs are there in a given
measurement?

52.8 mL
How to Determine Significant
Figures in a Problem

⚫ Use the following rules:

 Rule #1

• Every nonzero digit is significant

Examples:
24 = 2
3.56 = 3
7 =1
 Rule #2 – Sandwiched 0’s

• Zeros between non-zeros are significant

Examples:
7003 = 4
40.9 =
3
 Rule #3 – Leading 0’s

• Zeros appearing in front of non-zero digits are not

significant
• Act as placeholders
• Can’t be dropped, show magnitude

Examples:
0.00024 = 2
0.453 =
3
 Rule #4 – Trailing 0’s with DP

• Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a

decimal point are significant.

Examples:
43.00 = 4
1.010 = 4
1.50 = 3
 Rule #5 – Trailing 0’s without DP

• Zeros at the end of a number and to the left of a

decimal point aren’t significant

Examples:
300 = 1
27,300 = 3
 Easier Way to do Sig Figs!!
• Pacific/Atlantic

P A

If a decimal point is present, start on the Pacific (P)

side and draw an arrow through the number
until you hit a non-zero digit. Count all
numbers without an arrow through them.
If a decimal is absent, start on the Atlantic (A) side
and draw an arrow through the number until
you hit a non-zero digit.
 Examples:
123.003 grams
decimal present, start on “P” side, draw arrow,
count digits without an arrow through it.
Answer = 6

10,100 centimeters
Decimal absent, start on “A” side, draw an
arrow, count digits without an arrow
through it.
Answer = 3
 Learning Check

State the number of significant figures in each of the

following:
A. 0.030 m 1 2 3
B. 4.050 L 2 3 4
C. 0.0008 g 1 2 4
D. 3.00 m 1 2 3
E. 2,080,000 bees 3 5 7
 Learning Check

In which set(s) do both numbers contain the same

number of significant figures?
1) 22.0 m and 22.00 m
2) 400.0 m and 40 m
3) 0.000015 m and 150,000 m
Base Dimensions and Their Units
 References
• Richard S. Figliola, Donald E. Beasley Theory
and Design for Mechanical Measurements,
7th Edition