GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

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INTRODUCTION :
Blue lakes, ochre deserts, green forest, and multicolored rainbows can be enjoyed by anyone who has
eyes with which to see them. But by studying the branch of physics called optics, which deals with the
behaviour of light and other electromagnetic waves, we can reach a deeper appreciation of the visible
world. A knowledge of the properties of light allows us to understand the blue color of the sky and the
design of optical devices such as telescopes, microscopes, cameras, eyeglasses, and the human eyes.
The same basic principles of optics also lie at the heart of modern developments such as the laser,
optical fibers, holograms, optical computers, and new techniques in medical imaging.

1. CONDITION FOR RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

(Only for information not in IIT-JEE syllabus)
Some part of the optics can be understood if we assume that light travels in a straight line and it bends
abruptly when it suffers reflection or refraction.
The assumption that the light travels in a straight line is correct if
(i) the medium is isotropic, i.e. its behaviour is same in all directions and (ii) the obstacle past which the
light moves or the opening through which the light moves is not very small.
Consider a slit of width ‘a’ through which monochromatic light rays pass and strike a screen, placed at a
distance D as shown.

It is found that the light strikes in a band of width ‘b’ more than ‘a’. This bending is called diffraction.
Light bends by (b-a)/2 on each side of the central line .It can be shown by wave theory of light that

sin = .......(A), where  is shown in figure.
a
This formula indicates that the bending is considerable only when a ~  . Diffraction is more
pronounced in sound because its wavelength is much more than that of light and it is of the order of the
ba 
size of obstacles or apertures. Formula (A) gives  .
2D a
D
It is clear that the bending is negligible if  a or a  D . If this condition is fulfilled, light is said
a
to move rectilinearly. In most of the situations including geometrical optics the conditions are such that
we can safely assume that light moves in straight line and bends only when it gets reflected or
refracted.
Thus geometrical optics is an approximate treatment in which the light waves can be represented by
straight lines which are called rays. A ray of light is the straight line path of transfer of light energy.
Arrow represents the direction of propagation of light.
Figure shows a ray which indicates light is moving from A to B.

2. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
(i) Speed of light in vacuum, denoted by c, is equal to 3 × 108 m/s approximately.
 (ii) Light is electromagnetic wave (proposed by Maxwell). It consists of varying electric field and
magnetic field.

(iii) Light carries energy and momentum.

(iv) The formula v = f is applicable to light.

(v) When light gets reflected in same medium, it suffers no change in frequency, speed and wavelength.
(vi) Frequency of light remains unchanged when it gets reflected or refracted.

3. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When light rays strike the boundary of two media such as air and glass, a part of light is turned back
into the same medium. This is called Reflection of Light.
(a) Regular Reflection:
When the reflection takes place from a perfect plane surface it is called Regular Reflection. In this case
the reflected light has large intensity in one direction and negligibly small intensity in other directions.

(b) Diffused Reflection

When the surface is rough, we do not get a regular behaviour of light. Although at each point light
ray gets reflected irrespective of the overall nature of surface, difference is observed because even
in a narrow beam of light there are many rays which are reflected from different points of surface
and it is quite possible that these rays may move in different directions due to irregularity of the
surface. This process enables us to see an object from any position.
Such a reflection is called as diffused reflection.
For example reflection from a wall, from a news paper etc. This is why you can not see your face
in news paper and in the wall.

3.1 Laws of Reflection

(a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. This
plane is called the plane of incidence (or plane of reflection). This condition can be expressed
 mathematically as R . (  × N ) = N . (  × R )=  .( N × R ) = 0 where  , N and R are vectors of any
magnitude along incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray respectively.
(b) The angle of incidence (the angle between normal and the incident ray) and the angle of reflection
(the angle between the reflected ray and the normal) are equal, i.e.,

i = r
Special Cases :
Normal Incidence : In case light is incident normally,

i=r=0
  = 180º
Note : We say that the ray has retraced its path.
Grazing Incidence : In case light strikes the reflecting surface tangentially,

i = r = 90 ; deviation, = 0º or 360º
Note : In case of reflection speed (magnitude of velocity) of light remains unchanged but in grazing
incidence velocity remains unchanged.

Example 1. Show that for a light ray incident at an angle ‘i’ on getting reflected the angle of deviation is
=  2i or  2i.
Solution :

From figure (b) it is clear that light ray bends either by 1 anticlockwise or by 2 (= 2 – 1) clockwise.
From figure (a) 1 =  – 2i.
 2 =  + 2i.

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3.2 Object and Image
(a) Object (O) : Object is defined as point of intersection of incident rays.
 O O

Let us call the side in which incident rays are present as incident side and the side in which
reflected (refracted) rays are present, as reflected (refracted) side.
Note : An object is called real if it lies on incident side otherwise it is called virtual. (In case of
plane mirror only)
(b) Image () : Image is defined as point of intersection of reflected rays (in case of reflection) or
refracted rays (in case of refraction).




Note : An image is called real if it lies on reflected or refracted side otherwise it is called virtual.

4. PLANE MIRROR
Plane mirror is formed by polishing one surface of a plane thin glass plate .It is also said to be silvered
on one side.

A beam of parallel rays of light, incident on a plane mirror will get reflected as a beam of parallel reflected rays.

Example 2. For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated through an angle  (about an axis which
lies in the plane of mirror and perpendicular to the plane of incidence), show that the reflected
ray turns through an angle 2in same sense. 


Solution : See figure M1, N1 and R1 indicate the initial position of mirror, initial normal and initial direction of
reflected light ray respectively. M2, N2 and R2 indicate the final position of mirror, final normal and
final direction of reflected light ray respectively. From figure it is clear that ABC = 2 = 2 + )
or  = 2.
Note : Keeping the mirror fixed if the incident ray is rotated by angle  about the normal then reflected
ray rotates by same angle in the same direction of rotation
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4.1 Point object
Characteristics of image due to reflection by a plane mirror :
(i) Distance of object from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror.
 (ii) All the incident rays from a point object will meet at a single point
after reflection from a plane mirror which is called image.
(iii) The line joining a point object and its image is normal to the
reflecting surface.
(iv) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the
image is real
(v) The region in which observer's eye must be present in order to
view the image is called field of view.

Example 3. Figure shows a point object A and a plane mirror MN.

Find the position of image of object A, in mirror MN, by
drawing ray diagram. Indicate the region in which
observer’s eye must be present in order to view the
image. (This region is called field of view).

Solution See figure, consider any two rays emanating from the object. N1 and N2 are normals ;
i1 = r1 and i2 = r2

The meeting point of reflected rays R 1 and R2 is image

A’. Though only two rays are considered it must be
understood that all rays from A reflect from mirror such
that their meeting point is A´. To obtain the region in
which reflected rays are present, join A´ with the ends
of mirror and extend. The following figure shows this
region as shaded. In figure, there are no reflected rays
beyond the rays 1 and 2, therefore the observers P and
Q cannot see the image because they do not receive
any reflected ray.

Example 4. Find the region on Y axis in which reflected rays are present. Object is at A (2, 0) and MN is a
plane mirror, as shown.

Solution : The image of point A, in the mirror is at A’ (6, 0).

Join A’ M and extend to cut Y axis at M’ ( Ray originating
from A which strikes the mirror at M gets reflected as the
ray MM’ which appears to come from A’). Join A’N and
extend to cut Y axis at N’ (Ray originating from A which
strikes the mirror at N gets reflected as the ray NN’ which
 appears to come from A’).
From geometry.
M’  (0, 6)
N’  (0, 9). M’N’ is the region on Y axis in which reflected
rays are present.

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4.2 Extended object :
An extended object like AB shown in figure is a combination of
infinite number of point objects from A to B. Image of every
point object will be formed individually and thus infinite images
will be formed. A´ will be image of A, C´ will be image of C, B´
will be image of B etc. All point images together form extended
image. Thus extended image is formed of an extended object.

Properties of image of an extended object, formed by a plane mirror :

(1) Size of extended object = Size of extended image.
(2) The image is erect, if the extended object is placed parallel to the mirror.

(3) The image is inverted if the extended object lies perpendicular to the plane mirror.

(4) If an extended horizontal object is placed infront of a mirror inclined 45° with the horizontal, the
image formed will be vertical. See figure.

Example 5. Show that the minimum size of a plane mirror, required to see the full image of an observer is
half the size of that observer.
Solution : See the following figure. It is self explanatory if you consider lengths ‘x’ and ‘y’ as shown in
figure.
 Alter :
  EM1M2 and E H´F´ are similar 
M1M2 z
    
H´F´ 2z
or M1 M2 = H´ F´ / 2 = HF / 2
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4.3 Relation between velocity of object and image :
From mirror property :
xim = – xom , yim = yom and zim = zom
Here xim means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror.
Similarly others have corresponding meaning.
Differentiating w.r.t time, we get
v(im)x = –v(om)x ; v(im)y = v(om)y ; v(im)z = v(om)z,
 For x axis viG – vmG = – (voG – vmG)
but For y axis and z axis viG – vmG = (voG – vmG) or viG = voG .
here: viG = velocity of image with respect to ground.

Example 6. An object moves with 5 m/s towards right while the mirror moves with 1m/s towards the left as
shown. Find the velocity of image.
Solution : Take  as + direction. vi – vm = vm – v0
vi – (–1) = (–1) – 5
 vi = – 7m/s.   
 7 m/s and direction towards left.

Example 7. There is a point object and a plane mirror. If the mirror is moved by 10 cm away from the object
find the distance which the image will move.
Solution : We know that xim = – xom or xi – xm = xm – xo
or  xi – xm = xm – xo.
In this question xo = 0 ; xm = 10 cm.
Therefore xi = 2xm – xo = 20 cm.
Alter :
2(x + 10) = 2 x + d
 d = 20 cm

Example 8. In the situation shown in figure, find the velocity of image.

Solution : Along x direction, applying vi – vm = –(v0 – vm )

vi – (– 5cos 30º) = –(10 cos 60º –( –5 cos 300))
 vi = – 5 (1+ 3 ) m/s
Along y direction v0 = vi
 vi = 10 sin 60° = 5 3 m/s

 Velocity of the image = – 5 (1 + 3 ) î + 5 3 ĵ m/s.

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4.4 Images formed by two plane mirrors :
If rays after getting reflected from one mirror strike second mirror, the image formed by first mirror will
function as an object for second mirror, and this process will continue for every successive reflection.

Example 9. Figure shows a point object placed between two parallel mirrors. Its distance from M 1 is 2 cm
and that from M2 is 8 cm. Find the distance of images from the two mirrors considering
reflection on mirror M1 first.

Solution : To understand how images are formed see the following figure and table. You will require to
know what symbols like 121 stands for. See the following diagram.
 Incident Reflected Reflected Object Image Object Image
rays by rays distance distance
Rays 1 M1 Rays 2 O 1 AO = 2cm A1 = 2 cm
Rays 2 M2 Rays 3 1 12 B1 = 12 cm B12 = 12 cm
Rays 3 M1 Rays 4 12 121 A12 = 22cm A121 = 22cm
Rays 4 M2 Rays 5 121 1212 B121 =32cm B1212=32cm
Similarly images will be formed by the rays striking mirror M2 first. Total number of images = .

Example 10. Consider two perpendicular mirrors. M1 and M2 and a point object O. Taking origin at the point of
intersection of the mirrors and the coordinate of object as (x, y), find the position and number of images.
Solution Rays ‘a’ and ‘b’ strike mirror M1 only and these rays will
form image 1 at (x, –y), such that O and I1 are
equidistant from mirror M1. These rays do not form
further image because they do not strike any mirror
again. Similarly rays ‘d’ and ‘e’ strike mirror M2 only
and these rays will form image 2 at (–x, y), such that O
and I2 are equidistant from mirror M2.
Now consider those rays which strike mirror M2 first and then the mirror M1.

For incident rays 1, 2 object is O, and reflected rays 3, 4 form image 2.
Now rays 3, 4 incident on M1 (object is 2) which reflect as rays 5, 6 and form image 21. Rays 5,
6 do not strike any mirror, so image formation stops.
2 and 21, are equidistant from M1. To summarize see the following figure
 For rays reflecting first from M1 and then from M2, first image 1 (at (x, –y)) will be formed and
this will function as object for mirror M2 and then its image 12 (at (–x, –y)) will be formed.
I12 and I21 coincide.
 Three images are formed
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4.5 Locating all the images formed by two plane mirrors:
Consider two plane mirrors M1 and M2 inclined at an angle =as shown in figure.
Point P is an object kept such that it makes angle  with mirror M1 and angle  with mirror
M2. Image of object P formed by M1, denoted by 1, will be inclined by angle  on the other side of
mirror M1. This angle is written in bracket in the figure besides 1. Similarly image of object P formed by
M2, denoted by 2, will be inclined by angle  on the other side of mirror M2. This angle is written in
bracket in the figure besides 2.

Now 2 will act as an object for M1 which is at an angle + 2 from M1. Its image will be formed at an
angle + 2 on the opposite side of M1. This image will be denoted as 21and so on. Think when this
will process stop.
Hint : The virtual image formed by a plane mirror must not be in front of the mirror or its extension.
Number of images formed by two inclined mirrors
360º 360º
(i) If = even number ; number of image = –1
 
360º 360º
(ii) If = odd number ; number of image = – 1, if the object is placed on the angle bisector.
 
360º 360º
(iii) If = odd number ; number of image = , if the object is not placed on the angle bisector.
 
360º
(iv) If  integer, then count the number of images as explained above.

Example 11. Two mirrors are inclined by an angle 30°. An object is placed making 10° with the mirror M1.
Find the positions of first two images formed by each mirror. Find the total number of images
using (i) direct formula and (ii) counting the images.
Solution : Figure is self explanatory.
Number of images

360º
(i) Using direct formula : = 12 (even number)
30º
 number of images = 12 – 1 = 11
(ii) By counting. See the following table

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5. SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Spherical Mirror is formed by polishing one surface of a part of sphere. Depending upon which part is
shining the spherical mirror is classified as (a) Concave mirror, if the side towards center of curvature is
shining and (b) Convex mirror if the side away from the center of curvature is shining.

5.1 Important terms related with spherical mirrors :

 A
R

P C
B

A spherical shell with the center

of curvature, pole aperture and
radius of curvature identified
(a) Center of Curvature (C) :
The center of the sphere from which the spherical mirror is formed is called the center of curvature
of the mirror. It is represented by C and is indicated in figure.
(b) Pole (P) :
The center of the mirror is called as the Pole. It is represented by the point P on the mirror APB in
figure.
(c) Principal Axis :
The Principal Axis is a line which is perpendicular to the plane of the mirror and passes through the
pole. The Principal Axis can also be defined as the line which joins the Pole to the Center of
Curvature of the mirror.
(d) Aperture (A) :
The aperture is the segment or area of the mirror which is available for reflecting light. In figure.
APB is the aperture of the mirror.
(e) Principle focus (F) :
It is the point of intersection of all the reflected rays for which the incident rays strike the mirror (with
small aperture) parallel to the principal axis. In concave mirror it is real and in the convex mirror it is
virtual. The distance from pole to focus is called focal length.

Concave mirror

Convex mirror

Example 12. Find the angle of incidence of ray for which it passes through the pole, given that M || CP.

Solution :  MIC = CP = 

M || CP M = CP = 
C = CP
 CP = CP = 
 In CP all angle are equal
3 = 180º   = 60º

Example 13. Find the distance CQ if incident light ray parallel to principal axis is incident at an angle i. Also
find the distance CQ if i  0.

R R
Solution : cos i =  CQ =
2CQ 2cosi
As i increases cos i decreases. If i is a small angle cos i  1
Hence CQ increases  CQ = R/2

So, paraxial rays meet at a distance equal to R / 2 from center of curvature, which is called focus.

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5.1 Ray tracing :
Following facts are useful in ray tracing.
(i) If the incident ray is parallel to the principle axis, the reflected ray passes through the focus.

(ii) If the incident ray passes through the focus, then the reflected ray is parallel to the principle axis.
(iii) Incident ray passing through centre of curvature will be reflected back through the centre of
curvature (because it is a normally incident ray).

(iv) It is easy to make the ray tracing of a ray incident at the pole as shown in below.

5.2 Sign Convention

We are using co–ordinate sign convention.
(i) Take origin at pole (in case of mirror) or at optical centre (in case of lens). Take X axis along the
Principal Axis, taking positive direction along the incident light.
u, v, R and f indicate the x coordinate of object, image, centre of curvature and focus respectively.
 (ii) y-coordinates are taken positive above Principle Axis and negative below Principle Axis’ h1 and h2
denote the y coordinates of object and image respectively.

Note :
 This sign convention is used for reflection from mirror, reflection through flat or curved surfaces or
lens.

5.3 Formula for Reflection from spherical mirrors :

1 1 2 1
(a) Mirror formula :   
v u R f
X-coordinate of centre of curvature and focus of concave mirror are negative and those for convex
mirror are positive. In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in X-direction, therefore -ve sign
of v indicates real image and +ve sign of v indicates virtual image.

Example 14. Figure shows a spherical concave mirror with its pole at (0, 0) and principal axis along x axis.
There is a point object at (–40 cm, 1cm), find the position of image.

Solution : According to sign convention,

u = –40 cm
h1 = +1 cm
f = – 5 cm.
1 1 1 1 1 1 40 h v
     ; v= cm. ; 2 
v u f v 40 5 7 h1 u
 40 
 1
v 7 
× h1 = 
1
 h2 = – =  cm.
u 40 7
 40 1 
 The position of image is  cm,  cm 
 7 7 
Example 15. Converging rays are incident on a convex spherical mirror so that their extensions intersect 30 cm
behind the mirror on the optical axis. The reflected rays form a diverging beam so that their
extensions intersect the optical axis 1.2 m from the mirror. Determine the focal length of the mirror.
Solution : In this case u = + 30 
    v = + 120
1 1 1 1 1
 = + = +
f v u 120 30
f = 24 cm

Example 16. Find the position of final image after three successive reflections taking first reflection on m 1.
Solution :  reflection : Focus of mirror = – 10 cm  u = – 15 cm
1 1 1
Applying mirror formula :    v = – 30 cm.
v u f
For  reflection on plane mirror : u = – 10 cm 
    v = 10 cm
For  reflection on curved mirror again : u = – 50 cm ; f = – 10 cm
1 1 1
Applying mirror formula :   ; v = – 12.5 cm.
v u f

———————————————————————————————————
h2
(b) Lateral magnification (or transverse magnification) denoted by m is defined as m= and is
h1
v
related as m =  . From the definition of m, positive sign of m indicates erect image and negative
u
sign indicates inverted image.

(c) In case of successive reflection from mirrors, the overall lateral magnification is given by
m1 × m2 × m3 ......, where m1, m2 etc. are lateral magnifications produced by individual mirrors.
h1 and h2 denote the y coordinate of object and image respectively.

Note :
 Using 5.3(a) and 5.3(b) the following conclusions can be made (check yourself).
Nature of Object Nature of Image Inverted or erect
Real Real Inverted
Real Virtual Erect
Virtual Real Erect
Virtual Virtual Inverted
f f v
From 5.3(a) and 5.3(b); we get m=  ............... (just a time saving formula)
f u f

Example 17. An extended object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 20 cm at a distance of 15 cm from pole. Find the lateral magnification produced.
Solution u = – 15 cm f = – 10 cm
1 1 1
Using   we get, v = – 30 cm
v u f
v
 m =  = – 2.
u
f 10
Aliter : m = = =–2
f  u 10  ( 15)

Example 18. A person looks into a spherical mirror. The size of image of his face is twice the actual size of his
face. If the face is at a distance 20 cm then find the nature and radius of curvature of the mirror.
Solution : Person will see his face only when the image is virtual. Virtual image of real object is erect.
 Hence m = 2
v
 =2  v = 40 cm
u
1 1 1
Applying   ; f = – 40 cm or R = –80 cm (concave)
v u f
 R.O.C. = 80 cm
f f
Alter : m =  2= 
f u f  ( 20)
    f = – 40 cm or R = –80cm (concave)
 R.O.C. = 80 cm

Example 19. An image of a candle on a screen is found to be double its size. When the candle is shifted by a
distance 5 cm then the image become triple its size. Find the nature and ROC of the mirror.
Solution : Since the images formed on screen it is real. Real object and real image implies concave
mirror.
f f
Applying m= or –2= .....(1)
f u f  (u)
f
After shifting –3= .....(2)
f  (u  5)
[Why u + 5 ?, why not u – 5 : In a concave mirror, the size of real image will increase, only
when the real object is brought closer to the mirror. In doing so, its x coordinate will increase]
From (1) & (2) we get,
f = – 30 cm or R = –60 cm (concave) and R.O.C. = 60cm

———————————————————————————————————
(d) Velocity of image
(i) Object moving perpendicular to principal axis : From the relation in 5.3.(b) we have
h2 v v
 or h2 =  . h1
h1 u u
If a point object moves perpendicular to the principal axis, x coordinate of both the object & the
image become constant. On differentiating the above relation w.r.t. time, we get,
dh2 v dh1
= 
dt u dt
dh1 dh2
Here, denotes velocity of object perpendicular to the principal axis and denotes
dt dt
velocity of image perpendicular to the principal axis.
(ii) Object moving along principal axis : On differentiating the mirror formula with respect to time
dv v 2 du dv du
we get  2 , where is the velocity of image along principal axis and is the
dt u dt dt dt
velocity of object along principal axis. Negative sign implies that the image, in case of mirror,
always moves in the direction opposite to that of object. This discussion is for velocity with
respect to mirror and along the x axis.

(iii) Object moving at an angle with the principal axis : Resolve the velocity of object along and
perpendicular to the principal axis and find the velocities of image in these directions separately
and then find the resultant.
1
(e) Optical power of a mirror (in Dioptre) = –
f
f = focal length with sign and in meters.
 (f) If object lying along the principal axis is not of very small size, the longitudinal magnification
v  v1
= 2 (it will always be inverted)
u2  u1
(g) If the size object is very small as compared to its distance from Pole then
dv v2
On differentiating the mirror formula we get =  2 : Mathematically 'du' implies small
du u
change in position of object and 'dv' implies corresponding small change in position of image. If a
small object lies along principal axis, du may indicate the size of object and dv the size of its image
along principal axis (Note that the focus should not lie in between the initial and final points of
dv
object). In this case is called longitudinal magnification. Negative sign indicates inversion of
dt
image irrespective of nature of image and nature of mirror.

Example 20. A point object is placed 60 cm from pole of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm on the
principle axis. Find
(a) the position of image
(b) If object is shifted 1 mm towards the mirror along principle axis find the shift in image. Explain
the result.
Solution : (a) u = – 60 cm
f = – 10cm
fu 10 ( 60) 600
v = = = –12 cm.
u f 60  ( 10) 50

1 1 1
(b)  
v u f
2
v2  12  1
Differentiating, we get dv = – du = –  [1 mm] = – 25 mm
u2  60 

[ du = 1mm; sign of du is + because it is shifted in +ve direction defined by sign

convention.]
(a) –ve sign of dv indicates that the image will shift towards negative direction.
(b) The sign of v is negative. Which implies the image is formed on negative side of pole.
(a) and (b) together imply that the image will shift away from pole.
Note that differentials dv and du denote small changes only.

———————————————————————————————————
(h) Newton's Formula: XY = f 2
X and Y are the distances (along the principal axis) of the object and image respectively from the
principal focus. This formula can be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the focus.
6. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When the light changes its medium, some changes occurs in its properties, the phenomenon is known
as refraction.
  If the light is incident at an angle (0º < i < 90º) then it deviates from its actual path. It is due to
change in speed of light as light passes from one medium to another medium.
  If the light is incident normally then it goes to the second medium without bending, but still it is
called refraction.
  Refractive index of a medium is defined as the factor by which speed of light reduces as compared
c speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in vacuum   = .
v speed of light in medium
More (less) refractive index implies less (more) speed of light in that medium, which therefore is called
optical denser (rarer) medium.
6.1 Laws of Refraction
(a) The incident ray, the normal to any refracting surface at the point of incidence and the refracted ray
all lie in the same plane called the plane of incidence or plane of refraction.
Sin i
(b) = Constant for any pair of media and for light of a
Sin r
given wave length. This is known as Snell's Law.
Sin i n v 
Also, = 2 = 1 = 1
Sin r n1 v2 2
For applying in problems remember n1sini = n2sinr
n2
= 1n2 = Refractive Index of the second medium with
n1
respect to the first medium.
c = speed of light in air (or vacuum) = 3 x 108 m/s.
Special cases :
 Normal incidence : i = 0 ; from Snell’s law : r = 0

 When light moves from denser to rarer medium it bends away from normal.

 When light moves from rarer to denser medium it bends towards the normal.

Note :
  Higher the value of R.., denser (optically) is the medium.
 Frequency of light does not change during refraction.
 Refractive index of the medium relative to vacuum = r r
 nvacuum = 1 ; nair = ~ 1; nwater (average value) = 4/3 ; nglass (average value)= 3/2

6.2 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction

Deviation () of ray incident at i and refracted at r is given by  = |i  r|.

Example 21. A light ray is incident on a glass sphere at an angle of incidence 60 0 as shown. Find the angles
r, r’, e and the total deviation after two refractions.

Solution : Applying Snell’s law 1sin600 = 3 sinr  

    r = 30 0

From symmetry r’ = r = 300.

Again applying Snell’s law at second surface 1sin e = 3 sinr
 e = 60 0

Deviation at first surface = i – r = 600 – 300 = 300

Deviation at second surface = e – r’ = 600 – 300 = 300
Therefore total deviation = 600.

Example 22 : Find the angle a made by the light ray when it gets refracted from water to air, as shown in
figure.

Solution : Snell’s Law

4 3
W sin W = a sin a    1 sin a
3 5
4 4
sin a = a = sin–1
5 5

c
Example 23. Find the speed of light in medium ‘a’ if speed of light in medium ‘b’ is
where c = speed of
3
light in vacuum and light refracts from medium ‘a’ to medium ‘b’ making 45º and 60º
respectively with the normal.
Solution : Snell’s Law a sin a = b sin b
c c
sin a = sin b.
va vb
 c c
sin 45º = sin 60º.
va c/3
2c
va =
3 3
———————————————————————————————————
6.3 Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays
(a) A ray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the path of the incident ray.
(b) A refracted ray reversed to travel back along its path will get refracted along the path of the incident
ray. Thus the incident and refracted rays are mutually reversible.

7. REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB

When light passes through a parallel slab, having same medium on both sides, then
(a) Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
Note :
 Emergent ray will not be parallel to the incident ray if the medium on both the sides of slab are
different.

(b) Light is shifted laterally, given by (students should be able to derive it)

t sin(i  r)
d= ; t = thickness of slab
cosr

Example 24. Find the lateral shift of light ray while it passes through a parallel glass slab of thickness 10 cm
placed in air. The angle of incidence in air is 60º and the angle of refraction in glass is 45º.
t sin(i  r)
Solution : d=
cosr
10 sin(60  45)
=
cos 45
10 sin15
=
cos 45
= 10 2 sin 15ºcm

———————————————————————————————————
7.1 Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object
At near normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d) is given by:
d v
d= and v´
nrelative nrelative
ni (R..of medium of incidence)
where nrelative =
nr (R. . of medium of refraction)
 d = distance of object from the interface = real depth
d’ = distance of image from the interface = apparent depth
v = velocity of object perpendicular to interface relative to surface.
v´ = velocity of image perpendicular to interface relative to surface.
This formula can be easily derived using Snell’s law and applying the condition of nearly normal
incidence.... (try it or see in text book).

 1 
Apparent shift = d  1  
 nrel 

Example 25. An object lies 100 cm inside water. It is viewed from air nearly normally. Find the apparent
depth of the object.
d 100
Solution : d= = =75 cm
nrelative 4/3
1

Example 26. A concave mirror is placed inside water with its shining surface upwards and principal axis
vertical as shown. Rays are incident parallel to the principal axis of concave mirror. Find the
position of final image.

Solution: The incident rays will pass undeviated through the water surface and strike the mirror parallel to
its principal axis. Therefore for the mirror, object is at . Its image A (in figure) will be formed at
focus which is 20 cm from the mirror.
 Now for the interface between water and air, d = 10 cm.
d 10
 d’ = = = 7.5 cm.
 nw   4 / 3 
   
 na   1 

Example 27. See the figure

(i) Find apparent height of the bird.
(ii) Find apparent depth of fish.
(iii) At what distance will the bird appear to the fish?
(iv) At what distance will the fish appear to the bird?
(v) If the velocity of bird is 12 cm/sec downward and
the fish is 12 cm/sec in upward direction, then find
out their relative velocities with respect to each
other.
36 36 36
Solution (i) d´B =  = 48 cm (ii) d´F = = 27 cm
1 3/4 4/3
4
3
 
(iii) For fish : dB = 36 + 48 = 84 cm ; dB = 36 + 48 = 84 cm
(iv) For bird : dF = 27 + 36 = 63 cm. ; dF = 27 + 36 = 63 cm.
 12 
(v) Velocity of fish with respect to bird = 12    = 21 cm/sec.
 4/3 
 1/1 
 12 
Velocity of bird with respect to fish = 12    = 28 cm/sec.
 3/4 
 1/1 

Example - 28 See the figure. Find the distance of final image formed by mirror
 1 
Solution : Shift = 3  1 
 3 / 2 
For mirror object is at a distance
 1 
= 21 – 3  1  = 20 cm
 3 / 2 
    Object is at the centre of curvature of mirror.
Hence the light rays will retrace and image will be
formed on the object itself.

———————————————————————————————————
7.2 Refraction through a composite slab (or refraction through a number of parallel
media, as seen from a medium of R. I. n0)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final surface)
t t t tn
= 1 + 2 + 3 +......... +
n1 rel n2 rel n3 rel n n rel

Apparent shift
 1   1   n 
= t1  1   + t2  1   +........+ 1   tn
 n1rel   n2 rel   nn rel 
Where ' t ' represents thickness and ' n ' represents the R.I. of
the respective media, relative to the medium of observer.
 (i.e. n1rel = n1/n0, n2 rel = n2/n0 etc.)

Example 29. See the figure. Find the apparent depth of object seen below surface AB.


d 20 15
Solution : Dapp = = + = 18 + 18 = 36 cm.
 2   1.5 
 1.8   1.8 
   
———————————————————————————————————
8. CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T. I. R.)
Critical angle is the angle made in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90º. When angle in denser medium is more than critical angle, then the light ray reflects back in denser
medium following the laws of reflection and the interface behaves like a perfectly reflecting mirror.
In the figure
O = Object
NN = Normal to the interface
II = Interface
C = Critical angle;
AB = reflected ray due to T. I. R.
When i = C then r = 90o
n
C = sin–1 r
nd
8.1 Conditions of T. I. R.
(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (i > C). Figure shows a luminous object
placed in denser medium at a distance h from an interface separating two media of refractive
indices r and d. Subscript r & d stand for rarer and denser medium respectively.

In the figure, ray 1 strikes the surface at an angle less than critical angle C and gets
refracted in rarer medium. Ray 2 strikes the surface at critical angle and grazes the
interface. Ray 3 strikes the surface making an angle more than critical angle and gets internally
reflected. The locus of points where ray strikes at critical angle is a circle, called circle of
illuminance. All light rays striking inside the circle of illuminance get refracted in rarer medium. If
an observer is in rarer medium, he/she will see light coming out only from within the circle of
 illuminance. If a circular opaque plate covers the circle of illuminance, no light will get refracted in
rarer medium and then the object can not be seen from the rarer medium. Radius of C.O.I can be
easily found.

Example 30. Find the maximum angle that can be made in glass medium ( = 1.5) if a light ray is refracted
from glass to vacuum.
Solution : 1.5 sin C = 1 sin 90º, where C = critical angle.
sin C = 2/3
C = sin–1 2/3

Example 31. Find the angle of refraction in a medium ( = 2) if light is incident in vacuum, making angle
equal to twice the critical angle.
Solution : Since the incident light is in rarer medium. Total Internal Reflection can not take place.
1
C = sin–1 = 30º  i = 2C = 60º


Applying Snell’s Law. 1 sin 60º = 2 sin r

3  3
 r = sin–1 
 4 
sin r = .
4  
Example 32. What should be the value of angle so that light entering normally through the surface AC of a
prism (n = 3/2) does not cross the second refracting surface AB?

Solution : Light ray will pass the surface AC without bending since it is
incident normally. Suppose it strikes the surface AB at an
angle of incidence i.
i = 90-     
For the required condition : 90° – > c
1 2
or sin (90°) > sin c or cos> sin c = =
3/2 3
2
or < cos–1.
3
Example 33. What should be the value of refractive index n of a glass rod placed in air, so that the light
entering through the flat surface of the rod does not cross the curved surface of the rod?
Solution : It is required that all possible r’ should be more than critical angle. This will be automatically
fulfilled if minimum r’ is more than critical angle .....(A)
Angle r’ is minimum when r is maximum i.e. C (why ?). Therefore the minimum value of r’ is 90 – C.
From condition (A) :
 90° – C > C or C < 45°
1 1
sin C < sin 45° ; < or n > 2 .
n 2


———————————————————————————————————
9. CHARACTERISTICS OF A PRISM
(a) A homogeneous solid transparent and refracting medium bounded by two
plane surfaces inclined at an angle is called a prism :
3-D view

Refraction through a prism:

View from one side

(b) PQ and PR are refracting surfaces.

(c) QPR = A is called refracting angle or the angle of prism (also called Apex angle).
(d)  = angle of deviation
(e) For refraction of a monochromatic (single wave length) ray of light through a prism;
  = (i + e)  (r1 + r2) and r1 + r2 = A
   = i + e  A.
(f) Variation of  versus i (shown in diagram).
For one  (except  min) there are two values of angle of incidence. If i and e are interchanged then
we get the same value of  because of reversibility principle of light

Note :
 (i) For application of above result medium on both sides of prism must be same.
(ii) Based on above graph we can also derive following result, which says that i and e can be
interchanged for a particular deviation in other words there are two angle of incidence for a
given deviation (except minimum deviation).
i r1 r2 e 
1 2 3 4 5
4 3 2 1 5
(g) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle of deviation is minimum.
(h) When  = min, the angle of minimum deviation, then i = e and r 1 = r2, the ray passes symmetrically
w.r.t. the refracting surfaces. We can show by simple calculation that 
   min = 2imin – A
where imin = angle of incidence for minimum deviation, and r = A/2.
A  
sin  2 m  nprism
 nrel =   , where nrel =
sin  A2  nsurroundings

Alsomin = (n  1) A (for small values of  A)

(i) For a thin prism (A 10o) and for small value of i, all values of
nprism
  = (nrel  1) A where nrel =
nsurrounding

Example 34. Refracting angle of a prism A = 60º and its refractive index is, n = 3/2, what is the angle of
incidence i to get minimum deviation? Also find the minimum deviation. Assume the
surrounding medium to be air (n = 1).
A
Solution : For minimum deviation, r1 = r2 = = 30º.
2
applying Snell’s law at I surface
3 3 3
1 × sin i = sin 30º i = sin1    min = 2sin–1   – 60º
2 4 4

Example 35. See the figure. Find the deviation caused by a prism having refracting angle 4º and refractive
3
index .
2

3
Solution : =( – 1) × 4° = 2°
2
7
Example 36. For a prism, A = 60º, n = . Find the minimum possible angle of incidence, so that the light
3
ray is refracted from the second surface. Also find max.
Solution : In minimum incidence case the angles will be as shown in figure Applying snell’s law :
7
1 × sin imin = sin ( A – C)
3
 7 7  3 3 1
= (sin A cos C – cos A sin C) =  sin60 1   cos 60  = 
3 3  7 7 2
    imin = 30º   max = imin + 90° – A = 30° + 90° – 60° = 60°.

Example 37. Show that if A > Amax (= 2 C), then total internal reflection occurs at second refracting surface
PR of the prism for any value of ' i '.
Solution : For T.I.R. at second surface
r’ > C  (A – r) > C or A > (C + r)
The above relation will be fulfilled if
or A > C + rmax or A>C+C or A > 2C

———————————————————————————————————
(j) On the basis of above example and similar reasoning, it can be shown that (you should try the
following cases (ii) and (iii) yourself.)
(i) If A > 2C, all rays are reflected back from the second surface.
(ii) If A  C, no rays are reflected back from the second surface i.e. all rays are refracted from
second surface.
(iii) If 2C  A > C, some rays are reflected back from the second surface and some rays are
refracted from second surface, depending on the angle of incidence.
(k)  is maximum for two values of i 


   imin (corresponding to e = 90º) and i = 90º (corresponding to emin).
For imin : nssin i min = npsin(A – C)
If i < imin then T.I.R. takes place at second refracting surface PR.

——————————————————————————————————— 
10. DISPERSION OF LIGHT
The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components and spreading in different
directions is called Dispersion of Light. [It is for whole Electro Magnetic Wave in totality]. This
phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same speed in vacuum but with
different speeds in a medium.
Therefore, the refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also. This variation of
refractive index with wavelength is given by Cauchy’s formula.
b
Cauchy's formula n () = a  where a and b are positive constants of a medium.
2
Note :
 Such phenomenon is not exhibited by sound waves.
Angle between the rays of the extreme colours in the refracted (dispersed) light is called
angle of dispersion.   = v r (Fig. (a))
 Fig (a) and (c) represents dispersion, whereas in fig. (b) there is no dispersion.

For prism of small ‘A’ and with small ‘i’ :

 = v – r = (nv – nr) A
Deviation of beam (also called mean deviation)
  = y = (ny – 1) A
nv, nr and ny are R. . of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively.

Example 38. The refractive indices of flint glass for red and violet light are 1.613 and 1.632 respectively. Find
the angular dispersion produced by a thin prism of flint glass having refracting angle 5°.
Solution : Deviation of the red light is r = (r – 1)A and deviation of the violet light is v = (v – 1)A.
The dispersion = v – r = (v – r)A = (1.632 – 1.613) × 50 = 0.0950 .

Note :
 Numerical data reveals that if the average value of  is small v – r is also small and if the average
value of  is large v – r is also large. Thus, larger the mean deviation, larger will be the angular
dispersion.
n  nr
Dispersive power () of the medium of the material of prism is given by :  = v
ny  1
  is the property of a medium.
For small angled prism (A 10o) with light incident at small angle i :
nv  nr   r  angular dispersion
= v = =
ny  1 y y deviation of mean ray (yellow)
nv  nr
[ ny = if ny is not given in the problem ]
2
 n  1 = refractivity of the medium for the corresponding colour.

Example 39. Refractive index of glass for red and violet colours are 1.50 and 1.60 respectively. Find
(a) the refractive index for yellow colour, approximately
(b) Dispersive power of the medium.
  R 1.50  1.60  – R 1.60  1.50
Solution : (a) y ~ v = = 1.55 (b)  = v = = 0.18.
2 2 y – 1 1.55  1
———————————————————————————————————
10.1 Dispersion without deviation (Direct Vision Combination)
The condition for direct vision combination is :
 n  nr   nv  nr 
ny  1 A = ny  1 A   v  1 A    1 A
   
 2   2 
 Two or more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different combination of angular dispersion
and deviation.

or or

10.2 Deviation without dispersion (Achromatic Combination)

Condition for achromatic combination is: (nv  nr) A = (nv  nr) A

or or

Example 40. If two prisms are combined, as shown in figure, find the total angular dispersion and angle of
deviation suffered by a white ray of light incident on the combination.

Solution : Both prisms will turn the light rays towards their bases and hence in same direction. Therefore
turnings caused by both prisms are additive.
Total angular dispersion =  + ’ = (V – R) A + (’V – ’R) A’
= (1.5 – 1.4) 4º + (1.7 – 1.5)2º = 0.8°
Total deviation =  + ´
   R    '   'R   1.5  1.4   1.7  1.5 
=  V  1 A +  V  1 A’ =   1 0.4º +   1 0.2º
 2   2   2   2 
= (1.45 – 1) 0.4º + (1.6 – 1) 0.2º = 0.45 × 0.4º + 0.6 × 0.2º = 1.80 + 1.2 = 3.0º Ans.
Example 41. Two thin prisms are combined to form an achromatic combination. For I prism A = 4º, 
R = 1.35, Y = 1.40, V = 1.42 for II prism ’R= 1.7, ’Y = 1.8 and ’V = 1.9 find the prism angle
of II prism and the net mean deviation.
Solution : Condition for achromatic combination.  = ’
(1.42  1.35)4º
(V – R)A = (’V – ’R)A’  A’ =  1.4
1.9  1.7
Net =  – ’ = (Y – 1)A – (’Y – 1)A’ = (1.40 – 1) 4º – (1.8 – 1) 1.4° = 0.48º.

Example 42. A crown glass prism of angle 5° is to be combined with a flint prism in such a way that the
mean ray passes without deviation. Find (a) the apex angle of the flint glass prism needed and
(b) the angular dispersion produced by the given combination when white light goes through it.
Refractive indices for red, yellow and violet light are 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 respectively for crown
glass and 1.8, 2.0 and 2.2 for flint glass.
Solution : The deviation produced by the crown prism is  = ( – 1)A and by the flint prism is :
' = (' – 1)A'.
 The prisms are placed with their angles inverted with respect to each other. The deviations are
also in opposite directions. Thus, the net deviation is :
D =  – ' = ( – 1)A – (' – 1)A'. ......(1)
(a) If the net deviation for the mean ray is zero,
(  1) 1.6  1
( – 1)A = (' – 1)A' or, A' = A=  5 = 3°
( ' 1) 2.0  1
(b) The angular dispersion produced by the crown prism is : v – r = (v – r)A
and that by the flint prism is, 'v – 'r = ('v – 'r)A
The net angular dispersion is, (v – r)A – ('v – 'r)A = (1.7 – 1.5) × 50 – (2.2 – 1.8) × 3° = – 0.2°.
The angular dispersion has magnitude 0.2°.
———————————————————————————————————
11. SPECTRUM
(Only for your knowledge and not of much use for JEE)
Ordered pattern produced by a beam emerging from a prism after refraction is called Spectrum. Types
of spectrum:
11.1 Types of spectrum:
(a) Line spectrum : Due to source in atomic state.
(b) Band spectrum : Due to source in molecular state.
(c) Continuous spectrum : Due to white hot solid.
11.2 In Emission spectrum
Bright colours or lines, emitted from source are observed.
The spectrum emitted by a given source of light is called emission spectrum. It is a wavelength-wise
distribution of light emitted by the source. The emission spectra are given by incandescent solids,
liquids and gases which are either burnt directly as a flame (or a spark) or burnt under low pressure in a
discharge tube.
11.3 In Absorption spectrum
Dark lines indicates frequencies absorbed.
When a beam of light from a hot source is passed through a substance (at a lower temperature), a part
of the light is transmitted but rest of it is absorbed. With the help of a spectrometer, we can know the
fraction of light absorbed corresponding to each wavelength. The distribution of the wavelength
absorption of light by a substance is called an absorption spectrum. Every substance has its own
characteristic absorption spectrum.

11.4 Spectrometer
Consists of a collimator (to collimate light beam), prism and telescope. It is used to observe the
spectrum and also measure deviation.

———————————————————————————————————
12. REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media:
n2 n n  n1
 1 = 2 .................... (A)
v u R
where light moves from the medium of refractive index n1 to the medium of refractive index n2.
Transverse magnification (m) (of dimension perpendicular to principal axis) due to refraction at
v  R  v / n2 
spherical surface is given by m = = 
u  R  u / n1 

Example 43. Find the position, size and nature of image, for the situation shown in figure. Draw ray diagram.
Solution : For refraction near point A, u = – 30 ; R = – 20;
n1 = 2 ; n2 = 1.
n n n  n1
Applying refraction formula 2  1 = 2
v u R
1 2 1 2
– =
v 30 20
v = – 60 cm
h2 nv 2( 60)
m= = 1 = =4
h1 n2u 1( 30)
    h2 = 4 mm.
Special case:
Refraction at plane Surfaces
n2 n n  n1 nu
Putting R =  in the formula  1 = 2 , we get ; v = 2
v u R n1
The same sign of v and u implies that the object and the image are always on the same side of the
interface separating the two media. If we write the above formula as v = u ,
nrel
it gives the relation between the apparent depth and real depth, as we have seen before.

Example 44. Using formula of spherical surface or otherwise, find the apparent depth of an object placed
10 cm below the water surface, if seen near normally from air.
Solution : Put R =  in the formula of the Refraction at Spherical Surfaces we get,
un2
v=
n1 + direction
[direction of incident light]
u = – 10 cm
air
4 water
n1 =
3
n2 = 1
10  1
v=– = – 7.5 cm
4/3
Negative sign implies that the image is formed in water.
Alter :
d 10 30
dapp = real = = = 7.5 cm.
rel 4/3 4
———————————————————————————————————
13. THIN LENS
A thin lens is called convex if it is thicker at the middle and it is called concave if it is thicker at the ends.
One surface of a convex lens is always convex. Depending on the other surface a convex lens is
categorized as
(a) biconvex or convexo convex, if the other surface is also convex,
(b) Plano convex if the other surface is plane and
(c) Concavo convex if the other surface is concave.
Similarly concave lens is categorized as concavo-concave or biconcave, plano-concave and convexo-
concave.

For a spherical, thin lens having the same medium on both sides:
1 1  1 1 
 = (nrel  1)    .........(a),
v u  R1 R 2 
nlens
where nrel = and R1 and R2 are x coordinates of the centre of curvature of the 1st surface and
nmedium
2nd surface respectively.
1  1 1 
= (nrel – 1)  –  Lens Maker's formula ..........(b)
f  R1 R 2 
From (a) and (b)
1 1 1
 =
v u f
Lens has two Focii :
1 1 1
If u = , then     v=f
v  f
 If incident rays are parallel to principal axis then its refracted ray will cut the principal axis at ‘f’.
It is called 2nd focus.
In case of converging lens it is positive and in case of diverging lens it is negative.

1 1 1
If v =  that means    u=–f
 u f
  If incident rays cuts principal axis at – f then its refracted ray will become parallel to the principal
axis. It is called 1st focus. In case of converging lens it is negative ( f is positive) and in the case of
diverging lens it positive ( f is negative)

use of – f & + f is in drawing the ray diagrams.

Notice that the point B, its image B and the pole P of the lens are collinear. It is due to parallel slab
nature of the lens at the middle. This ray goes straight. (Remember this)

1  1 1 
From the relation = (nrel  1)    it can be seen that the second focal length depends on two factors.
f  R1 R 2 
 1 1 
(A) The factor    is
 R1 R 2 
(i) Positive for all types of convex lenses and
(ii) Negative for all types of concave lenses.
(B) The factor (nrel  1) is
(i) Positive when surrounding medium is rarer than the medium of lens.
(ii) Negative when surrounding medium is denser than the medium of lens.
(C) So a lens is converging if f is positive which happens when both the factors (A) and (B) are of
same sign.
(D) And a lens is diverging if f is negative which happens when the factors (A) and (B) are of
opposite signs.
(E) Focal length of the lens depends on medium of lens as well as surrounding.
(F) It also depends on wavelength of incident light. Incapability of lens to focus light rays of various
wavelengths at single point is known as chromatic aberration.

Example 45. Find the behaviour of a concave lens placed in a rarer medium.
Solution : Factor (A) is negative, because the lens is concave.
Factor (B) is positive, because the lens is placed in a rarer medium.
Therefore the focal length of the lens, which depends on the product of these factors, is
negative and hence the lens will behave as diverging lens.

 1 1 
Example 46. Show that the factor    (and therefore focal length) does not depend on which surface
 R1 R 2 
of the lens light strike first.
Solution : Consider a convex lens of radii of curvature p and q as shown.

CASE 1 : Suppose light is incident from left side and strikes the surface with radius of
 1 1  1 1 
curvature p, first. Then R1 = +p ; R2 = -q and    =   
 R1 R 2   p q 
 CASE 2 : Suppose light is incident from right side and strikes the surface with radius of
 1 1  1 1 
curvature q, first. Then R1 = +q ; R2 = -p and    =   
 1
R R 2   q p 
Though we have shown the result for biconvex lens, it is true for every lens.
Example 47. Find the focal length of the lens shown in the figure.

1  1 1 
Solution :   = (nrel – 1)   
f  R1 R 2 
1  1 1  1 1 2
 = (3/2 – 1)     = × f = + 10 cm.
f  10 (  10)  f 2 10
Example 48. Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure

1  1 1  3   1 1 
Solution : = (nrel – 1)    =   1    ; f = – 10 cm
f  1
R R 2   2    10 10 
Example 49. Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure
ROC = 60 cm
ROC = 20 cm

(a) If the light is incident from left side. (b) If the light is incident from right side.
1  1 1  3   1 1 
Solution : (a) = (nrel – 1)    =   1  60  20  ; f = 60 cm
f  1
R R 2   2   
1  1 1  3   1 1 
(b) = (nrel – 1)    =   1  20  60  ; f = 60 cm
f  1
R R 2   2   

Example 50. Point object is placed on the principal axis of a thin lens with parallel curved boundaries i.e.,
having same radii of curvature. Discuss about the position of the image formed.
1  1 1 
Solution : = (nrel  1)    =0 [ R1 = R2]
f  1
R R 2 

1 1
 = 0 or v = u i.e. rays pass without appreciable bending.
v u
Example 51. Focal length of a thin lens in air, is 10 cm. Now medium on one
side of the lens is replaced by a medium of refractive index = 2.
The radius of curvature of surface of lens, in contact with the
medium, is 20 cm. Find the new focal length.

Solution : Let radius of  surface be R1 and refractive index of lens be  . Let parallel rays be incident on
the lens. Applying refraction formula at first surface
  1  1
– = .....(1)
v1  R1
2  2
At  surface – = .....(2)
v v1 20
Adding (1) and (2)
 1 2   1 2
– + – = +
v1  v v1 R1 20
 1 1   1 2 1 1 2
= ( – 1)    – – = (in air) + –  v = 40 cm f = 40 cm
 1
R  20  20 20 f 20 20

Example - 52 Figure shows a point object and a converging lens. Find the final image formed.

1 1 1
Solution : – =
v u f
1 1 1
– =
v 15 10
1 1 1 1
= – =
v 10 15 30
v = + 30 cm
Example 53. See the figure Find the position of final image formed.

Solution : For converging lens

fu
u = –15 cm, f = 10 cm v= = 30 cm
f u
For diverging lens, u = 5 cm
fu
f = –10 cm v= = 10 cm
f u
Example 54. Figure shows two converging lenses. Incident rays are parallel to principal axis. What should be
the value of d so that final rays are also parallel.

Solution : Final rays should be parallel. For this the  focus of L1 must coincide with  focus of L2.

d = 10 + 20 = 30 cm
 Here the diameter of ray beam becomes wider.

Example 55. See the figure Find the position of final image formed.

1 1 1
Solution : For lens, – =
v u f
1 1 1
– =   v = + 30 cm
v 15 10
Hence it is object for mirror u = – 15 cm
1 1 1
+ =  v = – 30 cm
v 15 10
Now for second time it again passes through lens u = – 15 cm
v=? ; f = 10 cm
1 1 1
– =  v = + 30
v 15 10
Hence final image will form at a distance 30 cm from the lens towards left.
Example 56. What should be the value of d so that image is formed on the object itself.

1 1 1
Solution : For lens : – = v = + 30 cm
v 15 10
Case I : If d = 30, the object for mirror will be at pole and its image will be formed there itself.

Case II : If the rays strike the mirror normally, they will retrace and the image will be formed on
the object itself

 d = 30 – 20 = 10 cm

———————————————————————————————————
13.2 Transverse magnification (m)
 v
Transverse magnification (m) (perpendicular to principal axis) is given by m = . If the lens is thick
u
or/and the medium on both sides is different, then we have to apply the formula given for refraction at
spherical surfaces step by step.

Example 57. An extended real object of size 2 cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a
converging lens of focal length 20 cm. The distance between the object and the lens is 30cm.
(i) Find the lateral magnification produced by the lens.
(ii) Find the height of the image.
(iii) Find the change in lateral magnification, if the object is brought closer to the lens by 1 mm
along the principal axis.
1 1 1 v f
Solution : Using – = and m= we get m= ......(A) 
v u f u f u
20 20
    m= = =–2
20  ( 30) 10
–ve sign implies that the image is inverted.
h
(ii) 2 = m  h2 = mh1 = (–2) (2) = – 4 cm
h1
(iii) Differentiating (A) we get
f (20) 2
dm = du = (0.1) = = –.02
(f  u) 2
( 10) 2
100
Note that the method of differential is valid only when changes are small.
Alternate method : u (after displacing the object) = –(30 + 0.1) = – 29.9 cm
f
Applying the formula m =
f u
20
m= = – 2.02
20  ( 29.9)
 change in ‘m’ = – 0.02.
Since in this method differential is not used, this method can be used for any changes, small or large.

———————————————————————————————————
13.3 Displacement Method to find Focal length of Converging Lens :
Fix an object of small height H and a screen at a distance D
from object (as shown in figure). Move a converging lens from
the object towards the screen. Let a sharp image forms on the
screen when the distance between the object and the lens is
‘a’. From lens formula we have
1 1
–= or a2 – D a + f D = 0 ...(A)
Da f
This is quadratic equation and hence two values of ‘a’ are possible. Call them a 1 and a2. Thus a, and a2
are the roots of the equation. From the properties of roots of a quadratic equation,
 a1 + a2 = D  a1a2 = f D
Also (a1 – a2) = (a1  a 2 )2  4a1a 2 = D2  4fD = d (suppose).
‘d’ physically means the separation between the two position of lens.
The focal length of lens in terms of D and d.
 L
so, a1 – a2 = (a1  a 2 )2  4a1a 2

D2  4fd = d  
H
condition, d = 0, i.e. the two position coincide  screen
2 a (D-a)
D
 =
4D D

Roots of the equation a2 – Da +  D = 0, become imaginary if
b2 – 4ac < 0.
= D2 – 4D < 0
= D (D – 4) < 0.
=
for real value of a in equation a2 – Da + f D = 0
b2 – 4ac  0. = D2 – 4f D  0.
so, D  4f  Dmin = 4f
Lateral magnification in displacement method:
if m1 and m2 be two magnifications in two positions (In the displacement method)
v (D  a1) v D  a2 a1
m1 = 1 = m2 = 2 = =
u1 a1 u2 a 2 (D  a1)

So m1 m2 =
D  a1 
×
a1
= 1.
a1 (D  a1)
If image length are h1 and h2 in the two cases,
h h
then m1 = – 1  m2 = – 2  m 1 m2 = 1
H H
hh
 1 22 = 1  h1h2 = H2  H= h1 h2
H
———————————————————————————————————
14. COMBINATION OF LENSES
1 1 1 1
The equivalent focal length of thin lenses in contact is given by    ...., where f1, f2, f3 are
F f1 f2 f3
focal lengths of individual lenses. If two lenses are separated by a distance d and the incident light rays
are parallel to the common principal axis, then the combination behaves like a single lens of focal
1 1 1 d dF
length given by the relation    and the position of equivalent lens is with respect to
F f1 f2 f1f2 f1
2nd lens.

Example 58. Find the lateral magnification produced by the combination of lenses shown in the figure.

1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution : = + = – =  f = + 20
f f1 f2 10 20 20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 – =  = – = = – 20 cm
v 10 20 v 20 10 20
 20
 m= =2
10

Example 59. Find the focal length of equivalent system.

1 3  1 1  1 2 1
Solution : = 1  = × =
f1  2   10 10  2 10 10
1 6   1 1  1  30  3
=   1    = ×   =
f2  5   10 20  5  10  20  100
1 8  1 1  3
=   1    =
f3  5   20 20  50
1 1 1 1 1 3 3 100
= + + = + + f= Ans.
f f1 f2 f3 10 100 50 13

———————————————————————————————————
15. COMBINATION OF LENS AND MIRROR
The combination of lens and mirror behaves like a mirror of focal length ‘f’ given by

1 1 2
= –
f Fm F
If lenses are more than one, ‘f’ is given by
 1

1 1
= – 2 
f Fm  f 
For the following figure, ‘
1 1 1 1
f’ is given by = – 2  
f Fm  f1 f2 

Example 60. Find the position of final image formed. (The gap shown in figure is of negligible width)

1 1 2 1
Solution : = – = 
feq 10 10 10
    feq = – 10 cm
 1 1 1
+ =
v 20 10
 v = – 20 cm
Hence image will be formed on the object itself
———————————————————————————————————
Some interesting facts about light :
(1) THE SUN RISES BEFORE IT ACTUALLY RISES AND SETS AFTER IT ACTUALLY SETS :
The atmosphere is less and less dense as its height increase, and it is also known that the index of
refraction decrease with a decrease in density. So, there is a decrease of the index of refraction
with height. Due to this the light rays bend as they move in the earth’s atmosphere

(2) THE SUN IS OVAL SHAPED AT THE TIME OF ITS RISE AND SET :
The rays diverging from the lower edge of the sun have to cover a greater thickness of air than the
rays from the upper edge. Hence the former are refracted more than the latter, and so the vertical
diameter of the sun appears to be a little shorter than the horizontal diameter which remains
unchanged.
(3) THE STARS TWINKLE BUT NOT THE PLANETS :
The refractive index of atmosphere fluctuates by a small amount due to various reasons. This
causes slight variation in bending of light due to which the apparent position of star also changes,
producing the effect of twinkling.
(4) GLASS IS TRANSPARENT, BUT ITS POWDER IS WHITE :
When powdered, light is reflected from the surface of innumerable small pieces of glass and so the
powder appears white. Glass transmits most of the incident light and reflects very little hence it
appears transparent.
(5) GREASED OR OILED PAPER IS TRANSPARENT, BUT PAPER IS WHITE :
The rough surface of paper diffusely reflects incident light and so it appears white. When oiled or
greased, very little reflection takes place and most of the light is allowed to pass and hence it
appears transparent.
(6) AN EXTENDED WATER TANK APPEARS SHALLOW AT THE FAR END :
This is due to Total internal reflection

(7) A TEST TUBE OR A SMOKED BALL IMMERSED IN WATER PEARS SILVERY WHITE WHEN
VIEWED FROM THE TOP :
This is due to Total internal reflection
 (8) SHIPS HANG INVERTED IN THE AIR IN COLD COUNTRIES AND TREES HANG
INVERTED UNDERGROUND IN DESERTS:
This is due to Total internal reflection

Problem 1. See the following figure. Which of the object(s) shown in figure will not form its image in the
mirror.

Solution :

No ray from O3 is incident on reflecting surface of the mirror, so its image is not formed.

Problem 2. Figure shows an object AB and a plane mirror MN placed parallel to object. Indicate the mirror
length required to see the image of object if observer’s eye is at E.

Solution : Required length of mirror = MN.

 MNE & A'B'E are similar
MN A'B' A'B' AB
=  MN = = .
OE C'E 2 2
Problem 3. An object is kept fixed in front of a plane mirror which is moved by 10 m/s away from the object,
find the velocity of the image.
Solution : VIM   VOM

V,G  VM,G   VO,G  VM,G  

V,G  VO,G V,G

   VM,G   ( VO,G = 0 )
2 2
V,G = 10 î m/s = 20 î m/s

Problem 4. Figure shows two inclined plane mirrors M1 and M2 and an object O. M1
I1 ///
///
Its images formed in mirrors M1 and M2 individually are 1 and 2 ///
///
respectively. Show that 1 and 2 and O lie on the circumference of a / / /// O
/ ///
circle with centre at . [This result can be extended to show that all / ///
I ///
/////////////////////////
M2
the images will also lie on the same circle. Note that this result is
independent of the angle of inclination of mirrors.]. is the point of I2
intersection of the mirrors.
Solution : Clearly, OQ and  2Q are congruent and OP and 1P are //
M1
I1 ///
congruent / ////
// P
So, 1 = O and O = 2 ///
// /// O
///
Hence, 1 = O = 2 ///
/ /
Q
I /////////////////////////
M2
So, 1 and 2 and O lie on the circumference of a circle with centre .
I2

Problem 5. Find the position of final image after three successive reflections taking first reflection on m 1

Solution : 1st reflection at m1

u = – 15cm
f = –10 cm
1 1 1 3  2 1
  = 
v u f 30 30
v = – 30 cm
2nd reflection at plane mirror :
u = 5 cm
v = – 5 cm
For III reflection on curved mirror again :
u = – 20 cm
uf (20)  (10) 200
v= = = = – 20 cm
uf 20  10 10
Image is 20 cm right of m1
Problem 6. Find the position of final image after three successive reflections taking first reflection on m 1.
Solution :

1st reflection at mirror m 1 : u = –15 cm, f = – 10cm

1 1 1
= –
v f u
uf ( 15)  ( 10) 150
   v = = = cm = –30 cm.
uf ( 15)  10 5
Thus, image is formed at a point 5 cm right of m2 which will act as an object for the reflection at m2
For 2nd reflection at m 2
u = 5 cm, f = 10 cm
uf 5  10 50
v= = = = – 10 cm.
uf 5  10 5
3rd reflection at m 1 again.
u = –15 cm f = – 10 cm
uf 15  ( 10)
v= = = –30 cm. Ans.
uf ( 15)  10
Image is formed at 30 cm right of m 1

Problem 7. A coin is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror. The mirror produces a real image that has
diameter 4 times that of the coin. What is the image distance.
d v
Solution : m= 2 =– 
d1 u
v
    –4=–  v=4u
u
= 4 × (–10) = – 40 cm

Problem 8. A small statue has a height of 1 cm and is placed in front of a spherical mirror. The image of the
statue is inverted and is 0.5cm tall and located 10 cm in front of the mirror. Find the focal length
and nature of the mirror.
h 0.5
Solution : We have m = 2 = – = – 0.5
h1 1
v = – 10 cm (real image)
 fv f  10 20
But m = – 0.5 =  f= cm
f f 3
so, concave mirror. Ans.
Problem 9. A light ray deviates by 30° (which is one third of the angle of incidence) when it gets refracted
from vacuum to a medium. Find the refractive index of the medium.
Solution : =i–r
i
 = i – r = 30º  i = 90º
3
 2i = 3r
2i
 r= = 60º
3
sin90º 1 2
So, µ = = = Ans.
sin60º 3 /2 3

Problem 10. A coin lies on the bottom of a lake 2m deep at a horizontal distance x from the spotlight
(a source of thin parallel beam of light) situated 1 m above the surface of a liquid of refractive
index = 2 and height 2m. Find x.
eye
0
45
1m

2m
coin
x
sin 45º
Solution : 2 =
sinr
1
 sin r =
2
 r = 30º
x = RQ + QP = 1m + 2tan30° m
 2 
= 1 m Ans.
 3

Problem 11. A ray of light falls at an angle of 30º onto a plane-parallel glass plate and leaves it parallel to
the initial ray. The refractive index of the glass is 1.5. What is the thickness d of the plate if the
 1
distance between the rays is 3.82 cm ? [Given : sin–1   = 19.5º ; cos 19.5º = 0.94 ;
3
sin 10.5º = 0.18]
dsin(i  r)
Solution : Using s =
cosr
3.82  cosr
 d= .....(1)
sin(30º r)
sin30º 1
Also, 1.5 =  sin r =
sinr 3
so, r = 19.5º
 3.82  cos19.5º 3.82  0.94
So, d= =
sin(30º 19.5º ) sin10.5º
3.82  0.94 µ = 1.5
= = 19.948 cm  0.2 m
0.18

Problem 12. A light passes through many parallel slabs one by one as shown in figure.

Prove that n1sini1 = n2sini2 = n3sini3 = n4sini4 =.............[Remember this]. Also prove that if
n1 = n4 then light rays in medium n1 and in medium n4 are parallel.
sini1 n
Solution : We have, = 2
sini2 n1
 n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2 ....(i)
Similarly n2 sin i2 = n3 sin i3
so on
so, n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2 = n3 sin i3 = ..............
n1 sin i1 = n4 sin i4  sin i1 = sin i4 ( n1 = n2)
so, i1 = i4
Hence, light rays in medium n1 and in medium n4 are parallel.
Problem 13. An object lies 90 cm in air above water surface .It is viewed from water nearly normally. Find
the apparent height of the object.
d d 90 cm 90  4
Solution : d´ = = = = cm = 120 cm Ans.
nrel ni / nr 1 3
4/3
Problem 14. A concave mirror is placed inside water with its shining
surface upwards and principal axis vertical as shown.
Rays are incident parallel to the principal axis of
concave mirror. Find the position of final image.
Solution :
µ=1 1

2
d'
 We have,
u = – , f = – 20 cm
So, v = – 20 cm
So, d = 10 cm
d 10cm 30
 d´ = = = cm = 7.5 cm Ans.
rel 4/3 4
 1 
Problem 15. Prove that the shift in position of object due to parallel slab is given by shift = d  1  
 nrel 

n
where nrel = .
n'

Solution : Because of the ray refraction at the first surface, the image of O is formed at 1. For this
refraction, the real depth is AO = x and apparent depth is A1.
AO AO n(AO)
Thus : A1 = = = .
ni / nr n´/ n n´
The point 1 acts as the object for the refraction of second surface. Due to this refraction, the
image of 1 is formed at 2. Thus,

(B1) n´ n´  n  n´
B 2   (B1) = n'/n (AB + A1) =  d  (AO) = d + AO.
(n / n´) n n  n´  n
n´
Net shift = O2 = BO – B2 = d + (AO) – d – AO
n
 n´   1  n
= d  1   = d 1   where nrel = . Ans.
 n   nrel  n´

Problem 16. Find the apparent depth of object O below surface AB, seen by an observer in medium of
refractive index   

t1
Solution : dapp. =
1 /  2
Problem 17. In above question what is the depth of object corresponding to incident rays striking on surface
CD in medium .
Solution : Depth of the object corresponding to incident ray striking on the surface CD in medium µ2 = t2 + P1

t1
= t2+
1 /  2

Problem 18. In above question if observer is in medium 3, what is the apparent depth of object seen below
surface CD.
Solution : If the observer is in medium µ3. Apparent depth below surface CD = Q2.


ti t2 t1
= = 
(nrel )i 2 / 3 1 / 3

Problem 19. Find the radius of circle of illuminance, if a luminous object is placed at a distance h from the
interface in denser medium.
r 1
Solution : tan C = .  r = h tan C. But C = sin–1
h   d / r 

 1  r
so, r = h tan sin1  = h.
 d / r    d2  r2

Problem 20. A ship is sailing in river. An observer is situated at a depth h in water (w). If x >> h, find the
angle made from vertical, of the line of sight of ship.
  
Solution : C = sin–1  a 
 w 

water

Problem 21. Find r, r´, e,  for the case shown in figure.

––
Solution : Here  = 180° – 75° = 105°
sin 45° = 2 sin r
1 
   r = sin–1 = 30°.
2
r ' = 180° – (r + ) = 180° – 30° – 105° = 45° r'

sin e = 2 sin r '
 sin e = 2 × sin 45° = 1 
    e = 90
o

So,  = i + e – A = 45° + 90° – 75° = 60°.

Problem 22. For the case shown in figure prove the relations r – r = A and  = |(i – e) + A| (do not try to
remember these relations because the prism is normally not used in this way).

Solution :
 In  PQR, A + PQR + QRP = 180°
= A + r + 90o + 90o – r ' = 180°


Deviation after st refraction 1 = (i – r) (anticlock wise)

Deviation after nd refraction 2 = (e – r) (clock wise)
Hence net deviation  = 1 – 2 = (i – r) – (e – r) = i – e + A

Problem 23. From the graph of angle of deviation  versus angle of incidence i, find the prism angle

Solution : From the graph ;

 = i + e – A.
30° = 30° + 60° – A
 A = 60°
(use the result : If i and e are interchanged then we get
same value of 

Problem 24. If two prisms are combined, as shown in figure, find the net angular dispersion and angle of
deviation suffered by a white ray of light incident on the combination.

Solution : Net angular dispersion = (v – r) – ('v – 'r)

= (µv – µr) A – (µ'v – µ'r) A'
= (1.5 – 1.4)× 4° – (1.7 – 1.5)× 2o = 0
Angle of deviation
   r    '   'r 
= v  1 A –  v  1 A'
 2   2 
 1.5  1.4   1.7  1.5 
=  1 × 4° –   1 × 2° = 0.6°
 2   2 

Problem 25. The dispersive powers of crown and flint glasses are 0.03 and 0.05 respectively. The refractive
indices for yellow light for these glasses are 1.517 and 1.621 respectively. It is desired to form
an achromatic combination of prisms of crown and flint glasses which can produce a deviation
of 1° in the yellow ray. Find the refracting angles of the two prisms needed.
n  nr
Solution : c = 0.03 = v 
ny  1
    (nv – nr) = 0.03 (1.5 17–1) = 0.0155
n'  n'r
and, f = 0.05 = v 
n'y  1
    n'v – n'r = 0.05 × (1.6 21 – 1) = 0.031
 = (nv – nr) A – (n'v – n'r) A'
= 0.0155 A – 0.031 A' ......(1)
But net = 1
So, (ny – 1) A – (n'y – 1) A' = 1
= 0.517 A – 0.621 A' = 1 ......(2)
 A = 4.8° and A' = 2.4°

Problem 26. See the situation shown in figure

(1) Find the position of image as seen by observer A.
(2) Find the position of image as seen by observer B.

Solution : (i) As seen by observer A .

R = – 10 cm, u = – 10 cm.

observer

n2 n n  n1 1 1.5 1  1.5
So, – 1 = 2 , – =
v u R v ( 10) ( 10)
v = –10 cm (at O)
(ii) As seen by observer B
R=
u = – 20 cm
1 2.0 1  2.0
– =
v –20 

v = – 10 cm image will be formed 10 cm right of O.

Problem 27. Find the focal length of a double-convex lens with R1 = 15 cm and R2 = –25 cm. The refractive
index of the lens material n = 1.5.

1  1 1   1 1   10  6  8
Solution : = (n – 1)    = (1.5 – 1)    = 0.5   = .
f  R1 R 2   15 25   150  150
 150
f= = 18.75 cm
8

Problem 28. Find the focal length of a plano-convex lens with R1 = 15 cm and R2 = . The refractive index of
the lens material n = 1.5.

1  1 1   1 1 1
Solution : = (n – 1)    = (1.5 – 1)  15    = 0.5 ×
f  1
R R 2    15

 f = 30 cm .

Problem 29. Find the focal length of a concavo-convex lens (positive meniscus) with R1 = 15 cm and
R2 = 25 cm. The refractive index of the lens material n = 1.5.
1  1 1   10  6 
Solution : = (1.5 – 1)  15  25  = 0.5  150  . 
f    

300
   f= = 75 cm
4
Problem 30. Figure shows a point object and a diverging lens.

Find the final image formed.

1 1 1
Solution : – =
v u f
1 1 1 2
= + =–  v = – 5 cm
v 10 ( 10) 10

Problem 31. An extended real object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave lens of focal
length –10 cm, such that the image found is half the size of object.
(a) Find the object distance from the lens
(b) Find the image distance from the lens and draw the ray diagram
(c) Find the lateral magnification if object is moved by 1 mm along the principal axis towards
the lens.
Solution : (a) We have, f = – 10 cm.
h2 v
m= = 0.5 =
h1 u
1 1 1
So, – = gives.
v u f
1 1 1
 – =  u= – 10cm
0.5u u 10
 (b)

v
= 0.5. 
u
     v = 0.5 × (– 10) cm = – 5 cm
Ray diagram :
f f ( 10)
(c) m =  dm = du = (0.1) = 0.0025 cm
f u  f  u ( 10  10)2
2

so, final lateral magnification (m + dm) = 0.5025 cm Ans.

Problem 32. Find the equivalent focal length of the system for paraxial rays parallel to axis.

1 1 1 d 1 1 20 1
Solution :    =   
feq f1 f2 f1f2 10 10 10( 10) 5
 feq = 5 cm

Problem 33. See the figure. Find the equivalent focal length of the combination shown in the figure and
position of image.

1  1 1 
Solution : For the concave lens = (n – 1)   
f  R1 R 2 
3  1 1  1 2 1
=   1    = × =
2   10 10  2 10 10
R 10
And, fm = = = 5 cm 
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2
    = –2 = +2× = feq  2.5cm Ans.
feq fm f 5 10 5