TURBO MACHINES

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STEAM TURBINES
 Overview

• Hero Reaction Turbine – 120 B.C.

• First Practical Turbine – 1884, C.
Parsons
• First Power Plant – 7.5 kw – 1890
• Reaction, Impulse and Velocity-
Compounded
• Reheat Steam – 1930’s
• Last 100 years Turbine is the key
element in generating electricity
• Turbines run Generators, Pumps, Fans,
etc.
• Today up to 1,500 MW

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Fundamentals

Energy Transfer

Coal, Natural Gas,

Nuclear, Biofuel,
Waste Fuel
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Reaction Turbines

Newton’s third law of motion – For every action

there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Narrowing
Steam Path Narrowing
Steam Path

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Impulse Turbines

Steam / Gas Flow

Fixed Vanes

Moving Blades

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Reaction – Impulse Comparison

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 Velocity-Compounded Turbine

Velocity compounding is a form of staging which

by dividing the work load over several stages
results in improved efficiency and a smaller
diameter for the blade wheels due to a reduction in
Ideal blade speed per stage.

Inlet Pressure
1
P=
V

Inlet
Velocity

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Turbine Components - Blades

Impulse

Reaction
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Turbine Diaphragms

Diaphragms contain the fixed blades 10

Steam Turbine Casing

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Turbine Rotor

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Turbine Shaft and Casing Seals

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 Turbine Types

Straight HP
Tandem HP
Tandem LP

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Turbine – Multiple Sets

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 Steam Turbine Components
Turbine components are divided to stationary and rotary elements.
Stationary elements:
1. Casing: The most external part of the turbine and includes all other
elements.

Casing
 Steam Turbine Components
2. Fixed blades:
 These are the first components when the
steam enters to the turbine.
 These are connected to the casing, so they
cannot move.
 They have two main functions: The
decrease the steam pressure and increase
its velocity. Also they guide the steam to
the runners. nlendirir.

Fixed blade
Steam Turbine Components
 Steam Turbine Components
3. Inter blades : Fills the space between the fixed blades and the shaft.
4. Gasket : Their main role is between the rotating blades(runner) and
the shaft.

Inter-blades
Gasket/Sealing
 Steam Turbine Components
5. Bearing: To give the shaft power in radial motion.
6. Couplings: flexible couplings used for mechanical power
transmission

Coupling

Bearing
 Steam Turbine Components
Moving (rotational) components:
1. Runners: Employees the exit steam from the fixed blades to extract
their energy.

Rotating bales
Steam Turbine Components
Steam Turbine Components
 Steam Turbine Components
2. Wheel:Transfer the motion to the shaft.
3. Shaft: Outout of the turbine and delivers the power.

Wheels

Shaft
Steam Turbine Components
Steam turbines:
1. Noncondensing
2. Condensing.
• In noncondensing turbines (or backpressure turbines), steam exhausts at a
pressure greater than atmospheric. Steam then leaves the turbine and is utilized
in other parts of the plant that use the heat of the steam for other processes.

• The backpressure turbines have very high efficiencies (range from 67% to 75%).

• A condensing (multi-stage) turbine is a turbine in which steam exhausts to a

condenser and is condensed by air-cooled condensers. The exhaust pressure
from the turbine is less than the atmospheric. In this turbine, cycle efficiency is
low because a large part of the steam energy is lost in the condenser.

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Based on Inlet & Outlet Steam Condition

• Back pressure turbines – The Exhaust steam from

the turbine flows out of the steam piping at medium or low
pressure. Basically, the exhaust steam can be used effectively
in any other machines or equipment in the plant.

• Condensing turbines – Full steam quantities

entering into the turbine are exhausted, and converted to
condensate in a condenser. The exhaust steam pressure is
lower than the atmospheric pressure.

• Extraction turbines – Medium or low pressure steam

required by the process plant is extracted from the
intermediate stage of a condensing or back pressure turbine.

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 Steam Turbine
Multi-stage Turbines:

High pressure

Medium Pressure
Low Pressure
 Steam Turbine
Generator
Low pressure
High pressure

Condenser
Medium pressure
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 RANKINE CYCLE
RANKINE CYCLE
D'

C D

TEMPERATURE, T
WORK DONE
B

A E E'
HEAT REJECTED

ENTROPY, S
PROCESS A-B: ISENTROPIC/ADIABATIC COMPRESSION PROCESS
FEED WATER TO BOILER IS PRESSURIED TO BOILER

PROCESS B-C: CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS

FEED WATER HEATED UPTO SATURATION TEMP T1 CALLED
SENSIBLE HEATING POINT C IS INTERMEDIATE POINT OF
STEAM GENERATION

PROCESS C-D: CONSTANT PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE PROCESS

FEED WATER IS VAPOURISED CALLED LANTENT HEAT OF
VAPOURISATION POINT D IS STEAM IS DRY & SATURATED.

PROCESS D-E: ISENTROPIC/ADIABATIC EXPANSION PROCESS

EXPANSION OF STEAM TO VACCUM

PROCESS E-A: CONSTANT PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE PROCESS

REJECTION OF HEAT TO CONDENSOR TO CONDENSE THE STEAM.
AT POINT D, STEAM IS DRY & SATURATED.

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• In a steam turbine, high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in
a set of stationary blades or vanes (or nozzles).

• The high-velocity steam from the nozzles strikes the set of moving
blades (or buckets)

• The kinetic energy of the steam is utilized to produce work on the

turbine rotor. Low-pressure steam then exhausts to the condenser.

There are two classical types of turbine stage designs:

• the impulse stage

• the reaction stage

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At the end of this process, the pressure of the fluid is
decreased in the steam turbine exit.
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compressibility factor Z defined as

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• Thermodynamic diagrams and tables are used to give themodynamic
properties, because there are not simple relations to relate their properties
to each other.

• T-s and h-s diagrams are used for steam. h-s diagram is also called
MOLIER diagram.

• Using of diagrams is easy, but the results are normally an approximation

and in accurate design and calculations, we cannot rely on them. In this
case, tables are used.

• For steam, saturated and superheat tables are normally used.

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 T-s Diagram

Pressure
Temperature

Enthalpy

Saturated
Saturated
steam
liquid

Entropy
 MOLİER diagram

Sat.
Steam
Sat. liquid
 Steam
4000
19000 kPa
730 kPa

3500
30 kPa

3000 1 kPa

2500
h [kJ/kg]

0,9

2000 0,8

1500 0,6

1000 0,4

500
2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,0 11,0 12,0
s [kJ/kg-K]

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Saturated liquid ( Based on Temperature)
Saturated liquid ( Based on Pressure)
Superheat steam
for steady-flow processes are expressed as:

When the potential energy of the fluid is negligible, the stagnation enthalpy
represents the total energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass.

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 Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a duct such as a nozzle, diffuser:

When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with constant specific

heats, its enthalpy can be replaced by

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STEAM NOZZLES

pressure and volume are related by the simple expression:

(for perfect gas)

Steam deviates from the laws of perfect gases. The P-V relationship is
given by:

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C1
(Inlet)

C2
(Outlet)

Throat

• All nozzles consist of an inlet section, a throat, and an exit.

• The velocity through a nozzle is a function of the pressure-differential
across the nozzle.

• Applying steady flow energy equation per unit mass:

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Now, Assume that the flow occurs adiabatically under steady conditions. (q=0), Since no
work is transferred, the velocity of the fluid at the nozzle entry is usually very small and its
kinetic energy is negligible compared with that at the outlet. Hence,
the equation reduces to:

Steam exit velocity in the nozzle, is a function of enthalpy changes

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• As the outlet pressure decreases, the velocity increases.

• Eventually, a point is reached called the critical pressure ratio, where the
velocity is equal to the velocity of sound in steam. Any further reduction in
pressure will not produce any further increases in the velocity.

• The temperature, pressure, and density are called critical temperature,

critical pressure, and critical density, respectively.

SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER

Mach number

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Noting that

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 By replacing the relationships:

The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the
throat) are called critical properties, and the ratios are called critical ratios.

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The critical properties of compressible flow
should not be confused with the properties
of substances at the critical point.

the critical temperature at which section M=1.

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back pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at the nozzle discharge region)
on the exit velocity
n n
Tc 2 Pc  T1  n1 Pc  2  n1
    
T1 n  1 P1  Tc  P1  n  1 
When the outlet pressure is designed to be higher than the critical pressure, a
simple convergent nozzle may be used. In a convergent nozzle,
the outlet cross-sectional area and the throat cross-sectional
areas are equal.

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 Flow in Nozzles

Pc
Simple Nozzle 1
P2
P2
P1
Pc
Pc
Nozzle- 1
Diffuser P2
• The operation of a convergent nozzle is not practical in high
pressure applications. This will cause increased friction
losses as the steam flows through the moving blades

• To allow the steam to expand without turbulence, the convergent–

divergent nozzle is used. In this type of nozzle, the area of the
section from the throat to the exit gradually increases, as shown in

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The critical pressure ratio is approximately 0.55 for superheated
steam.

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• The size of the throat and the length of the divergent section of every nozzle
must be specifically designed for the pressure ratio for which the nozzle will be
used.
• If a nozzle is designed to operate so that it is just choked, any other operating
condition is an off-design condition. In this respect, the behavior of convergent
and convergent–divergent nozzles are different. The temperature at the throat,
i.e., the critical temperature, can be found from steam tables at the value of Pc
And sc =s1

The critical velocity is given by the equation:

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NOZZLE EFFICIENCY
The expansion process is irreversible due to friction between the fluid and
walls of the nozzle, and friction within the fluid itself. However, it is still
approximately adiabatic as shown.

1–2’ is the isentropic enthalpy

drop and 1–2 is the actual
enthalpy drop in the nozzle. Then
the nozzle efficiency is defined as:

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THE REHEAT FACTOR

Consider a multi-stage turbine as shown by the Mollier diagram,

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The reheat factor is defined by:

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The reheat factor may be used to relate the stage efficiency and the
turbine efficiency.

Turbine isentropic efficiency is given by:

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Equation 6 indicates that the turbine efficiency is greater than the
stage efficiency. The reheat factor is usually of the order of 1.03–
1.04.

Example 1: Dry saturated steam at 2 MPa enters a steam nozzle and leaves at
0.2 MPa. Find the exit velocity of the steam and dryness fraction. Assume
isentropic expansion and neglect inlet velocity.

Solution:

Since the expansion is isentropic,

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Here x2 is the dryness fraction after isentropic expansion,
is the entropy of saturated liquid at 0.2 MPa,
is the entropy of vaporization at 0.2 MPa.

Using tables:

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Using the energy equation:

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Example 2: Dry saturated steam is expanded in a nozzle from 1.3 MPa to 0.1
MPa. Assume friction loss in the nozzle is equal to 10% of the total enthalpy drop;
calculate the mass of steam discharged when the nozzle exit diameter is 10 mm.
Solution:

Enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 1.3 MPa, using steam tables,

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Example 3: Steam at 7.5 MPa and 500 C expands through an ideal nozzle to a
pressure of 5 MPa. What exit area is required to accommodate a flow of 2.8
kg/s? Neglect initial velocity of steam and assume isentropic expansion in the
nozzle.

Solution:

Then we calculate the critical pressure:

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Example: Consider a convergent–divergent nozzle in which steam enters at 0.8
MPa and leaves the nozzle at 0.15 MPa. Assuming isentropic expansion and
index n = 1.135, find the ratio of cross-sectional area, the area at the exit, and
the area at the throat for choked conditions (i. e. , for maximum mass flow).
Solution:
Critical pressure for maximum mass flow is given AS follows:

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A turbine stage is defined as a set of stationary blades (or nozzles)
followed by a set of moving blades (or buckets or rotor). Together,
the two sets of blades allow the steam to perform work on the
turbine rotor.

Two turbine stage designs in use are: the impulse stage and
reaction stage.

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 Steam Turnbine
• Impulse Turbine: the total
pressure drop occurs across the
stationary blades (or nozzles).
This pressure drop increases
the velocity of the steam.

• Reaction Turbines: The total

pressure drop is divided equally
across the stationary blades
and the moving blades.
the shape of the stationary blades
or nozzles in both stage designs is
very similar. However, a big
difference exists in the shapes of
the moving blades. In an impulse
stage, the shape of the moving
blades or buckets is like a cup. The
shape of the moving blades in a
reaction stage is more like that of
an airfoil. These blades look very
similar to the stationary blades or
nozzles.

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Impulse Turbines
 Most of the steam turbine plants use impulse steam turbines, whereas
gas turbine plants seldom do. The general principles are the same
whether steam or gas is the working substance.

steam supplied to a
single-wheel impulse
turbine,expands
completely in the nozzles
and leaves with absolute
velocity C1 at an angle α1

by subtracting the blade

velocity vector U, the relative
velocity, vector at entry to the
rotor V1 can be determined.

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The relative velocity V1 makes an angle of β1 with respect to U. The
increase in value of decreases the value α1 decreases the value of the
useful component, and increases the value of the axial or flow

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 Cw1 = Tangential component of inlet absolute velocity
C  V +U Cw2 = Tangential component of outlet absolute velocity
Ca1 = Inlet velocity (absolute) axial velocity
Ca2 = Exit velocity (absolute) axial velocity

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axial thrust in the flow direction

diagram efficiency

Referring to the combined diagram is the change in the velocity

of whirl. Therefore:

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The product of the driving force and the blade velocity gives the rate
at which work is done on the wheel:

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The maximum velocity of the steam striking the blades

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Differentiating and equating it to zero provides the maximum diagram
efficiency:

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 Substituting this value into, the power output per unit mass flow rate at
the maximum diagram efficiency:

Example: The velocity of steam leaving a nozzle is 925 m/s and the nozzle
angle is 208. The blade speed is 250 m/s. The mass flow through the turbine
nozzles and blading is 0.182 kg/s and the blade velocity coefficient is 0.7.
Calculate the following:
1. Velocity of whirl.
2. Tangential force on blades.
3. Axial force on blades.
4. Work done on blades.
5. Efficiency of blading.
6. Inlet angle of blades for shockless inflow of steam.
Assume that the inlet and outlet blade angles are equal.

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Solution
From the data given, the velocity diagram can be constructed as
shown. The problem can be solved either graphically or by calculation.

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Design Example

Design Example 6.7: The steam velocity leaving the nozzle is 590 m/s
and the nozzle angle is 208. The blade is running at 2800 rpm and
blade diameter is 1050 mm. The axial velocity at rotor outlet =155 m/s,
and the blades are symmetrical. Calculate the work done, the diagram
efficiency and the blade velocity coefficient.

Solution:
Blade speed U is given by:

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The velocity diagram is shown:

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Applying the cosine rule to the triangle
ABC,

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