An Introduction to Statistics and Probability (S 102)

Graphical presentations
Lecture 5

Azza Osman, Ph.D

Faculty of Mathematical Sciences

University of Khartoum

July 6, 2022

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Outline

1 Statistical Graphs
Bar graph
Pie graph
Pareto chart
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Ogive
Stem and Leaf plot
Time series graph

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Lecture Objectives

Represent data in frequency distributions using bar graph, pie

graph, Pareto chart.
Represent data in frequency distributions graphically using
histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.
Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot, and time series graph.

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Statistical Graphs

The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the

viewers in pictorial form.
Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to
analyze it.
Graphs are also useful in getting the audience’s attention in a
publication or a speaking presentation.
They can be used to discuss an issue, support a critical point, or
summarize a data set.
They can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation
over a period of time.

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Bar Graph

Bar Graphs
A bar Graph represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars
whose heights or length represent the frequency of the data.

The most common graphic form to present a qualitative variable is

a bar chart.
A distinguishing feature of a bar chart is there is distance or a gap
between the bars. That is, because the variable of interest is
qualitative, the bars are not adjacent to each other.

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Examle

Example
The table shows the average money spent by first-year college
students in a month. Draw a bar graph for the data.

Electronic 728
Daily expenses 344
Clothing 141
Shoes 72

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Bar Graph

Solution:
First Draw x and y axes, and Represent the frequency on
the y axis
Second Using the frequencies as the heights,
draw vertical bars for each class.

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Bar Graph

The graphs show that first-year college students spend the most on
electronic equipment including computers, mobiles, internet etc...

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Pie graph

Pie graph
A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according
to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution.

The purpose of the pie graph is to show the relationship of the parts to
the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections, the variable
is nominal or ordinal.

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Example

Example
Construct a pie graph for the blood tests.

class tally frequency percent

A ∥∥ 5 20%
B ∥∥ ∥ 7 28%
O ∥∥ ∥∥ 9 36%
AB ∥∥ 4 16%
Total=25 100%

solution
First Find the number of degrees for each class.
using the equation
Degrees = frequency
Total ∗ 360
5
A = 25 ∗ 360 = 72
7
B = 25 ∗ 360 = 100.8
9
O = 25 ∗ 360 = 129.6
4
AB = 25 ∗ 360 = 57.6

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Pie graph
solution
f
Second Find the percentages using p = tot
Third Using a protractor, graph each section and write
its name and corresponding percentage.

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Pareto chart

Pareto chart
A Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a
categorical variable, and the frequencies are displayed by the heights
of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to lowest.

Example
The data shown here consist of the number of homeless people for a
sample of selected cities. Construct and analyze a Pareto chart for the
data.
Atlanta 6832
Baltimore 2904
Chicago 6680
St. Louis 1485
Washington 5518

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Pareto chart
Solution:
First Arrange the data from the largest to smallest
according to frequency
Second Draw x and y axes
Third Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies.

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Histogram

Histogram
Is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars
(unless the frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent
the frequencies of the classes.

The bars are drawn adjacent to each other.

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Example

Example
Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 cities.

Class boundaries Frequency

99.5–−104.5 2
104.5–−109.5 8
109.5–−114.5 18
114.5–−119.5 13
119.5–−124.5 7
124.5–−129.5 1
129.5–−134.5 1
Total=50

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Histogram

Solution:
First Draw x and y axes, and Represent the frequency on
the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
Second Using the frequencies as the heights,
draw vertical bars for each class.

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As the histogram shows, the class with the greatest number of data
values (18) is 109.5 − –114.5, followed by 13 for 114.5 − –119.5. The
graph also has one peak with the data clustering around it.

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Frequency Polygon

Frequency Polygon
Is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points
plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The
frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.

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Example

Example
Using the previous data construct a frequency polygon.
solution:
First Find the midpoints of each class
lowerboundary +uperboundary
xm = 2
Class boundaries Mid points Frequency
99.5–−104.5 102 2
104.5–−109.5 107 8
109.5–−114.5 112 18
114.5–−119.5 117 13
119.5–−124.5 122 7
124.5–−129.5 127 1
129.5–−134.5 132 1
Total=50

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Frequency Polygon

Solution:
Second Draw the x and y axes. Label the
x axis with the midpoint of each class, and
then use a suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies
Third Using the midpoints for the x values
and the frequencies as the y values, plot
the points.
Fourth Connect adjacent points with line segments.
Draw a line back to the x axis at the beginning and
end of the graph at the same distance that the
previous and next midpoints would be located.

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Frequency Polygon

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Ogive

Ogive
Is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in
a frequency distribution.

Also called cumulative frequency graph, and it’s used to visually

represent how many values are below a certain upper class boundary.

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Example:
Construct an ogive for the frequency distribution described in the
previous example.
solution:
First Find the cumulative frequency for each class.
Second Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis
with the class boundaries. Use an appropriate scale
for the y axis to represent the cumulative frequencies.
Third Plot the cumulative frequency at each
upper class boundary.
Fourth Starting with the first upper class
boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points
with line segments. Then extend the graph
to the first lower class boundary,
99.5, on the x axis.

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Ogive

Solution:

Class boundaries Cumulative frequency

less than 99.5 0
less than 104.5 2
less than 109.5 10
less than 114.5 28
less than 119.5 41
less than 124.5 48
less than 129.5 49
less than 134.5 50

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Ogive

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Stem and Leaf plot

The major advantage to organizing the data into a frequency

distribution is that we get a quick visual picture of the shape of the
distribution without doing any further calculation.

But, we lose the exact identity of each value and we are not sure
how the values within each class are distributed.

One technique that is used to display quantitative information in a

condensed form is the stem-and-leaf display.

An advantage of the stem-and-leaf display over a frequency

distribution is that we do not lose the identity of each observation.

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Stem and Leaf plot

A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that uses part of the data value as
the stem and part of the data value as the leaf to form groups or
classes.
Each numerical value is divided into two parts. The leading digit(s)
becomes the stem and the trailing digit the leaf. The stems are located
along the vertical axis, and the leaf values are stacked against each
other along the horizontal axis.

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Stem and Leaf plot

Example At a clinic the number of blood tests performed each day for
20 days is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data.
25 31 20 32 13
14 43 02 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

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Stem and Leaf plot

Solution
First Arrange the data in order
02,13,14,20,23,25,31,32,32,32,32,33,36,43
44,44,45,51,52,57
Second Separate the data according to the first digit
Leading digits (Stem) Trailing digits(leaf)
0
1
2
3
4
5

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Stem and Leaf plot

Third A display can be made by using the leading

digit as the stem and the trailing
digit as the leaf
Leading digits (Stem) Trailing digits(leaf)
0 2
1 34
2 035
3 1222236
4 3445
5 127

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Stem and Leaf Display

The distribution peaks in the center and that there are no gaps in the
data. For 7 of the 20 days, the number of blood tests was between 31
and 36.
The plot also shows that the testing center treated from a minimum of
2 patients to a maximum of 57 patients in any one day

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Stem and Leaf Display

Example
the number of 30-second radio advertising spots purchased by each of
the 45 members of the Greater Buffalo Automobile Dealers
Association last year. Organize the data into a stem-and-leaf display.
Around what values do the number of advertising spots tend to
cluster? What is the fewest number of spots purchased by a dealer?
The largest number purchased?

96 93 88 117 127 95 113 96 108 94 148 156 139 142 94 107 125 155
155 103 112 127 117 120 112 135 132 111 125 104 106 139 134 119
97 89 118 136 125 143 120 103 113 124 138

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Stem and Leaf Display

96 93 88 117 127 95 113 96 108 94 148 156 139 142 94 107 125 155
155 103 112 127 117 120 112 135 132 111 125 104 106 139 134 119
97 89 118 136 125 143 120 103 113 124 138

Stem Leaf
8 8
9 63
10
11
12
13
14
15

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Stem and Leaf Display

96 93 88 117 127 95 113 96 108 94 148 156 139 142 94 107 125 155
155 103 112 127 117 120 112 135 132 111 125 104 106 139 134 119
97 89 118 136 125 143 120 103 113 124 138

Stem Leaf
8 89
9 6356447
10 873463
11 732721983
12 75705504
13 9529468
14 823
15 655

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Stem and Leaf Display

1 Around what values do the number of advertising spots tend to

cluster?

2 What is the fewest number of spots purchased by a dealer?

3 The largest number purchased?

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Time series graph

Time series graph

Time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of
time.

A time series is a collection of data recorded over a period of

time—weekly, monthly, quarterly, or yearly.
An examples of time series are Microsoft Corporation sales by
quarter since 1985.
An analysis of history or a time series is used by management to
make current decisions and plans based on long-term forecasting.

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Example

The number of thefts that occurred in a certain neighbourhood from

2003 to 2008 as shown below, draw and analyze time series graph for
the data.
Year Number
03 632
04 599
05 567
06 540
07 628
08 517

solution:
First Draw and label the x and y axes. Label the x axis
for the years and the y axis for the numbers of thefts
Second Plot each point according to the table.
Third Draw line segments connecting adjacent points

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Time series graph

There was a slight decrease in the years 04, 05 and 06, compared to 03 and
again an increase in 07. The largest decrease occurred in 08. Two or more
data sets can be compared on the same graph called a compound time
series graph.

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