Hindawi

International Journal of Polymer Science

Volume 2023, Article ID 2445472, 13 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/2445472

Research Article
Ecofriendly Biochar as a Low-Cost Solid Lubricating Filler for
LDPE Sustainable Biocomposites: Thermal, Mechanical, and
Tribological Characterization

Hany S. Abdo , Ibrahim A. Alnaser , Asiful H. Seikh , Jabair A. Mohammed ,

Sameh A. Ragab, and Ahmed Fouly
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia

Correspondence should be addressed to Hany S. Abdo; [email protected]

Received 29 September 2023; Revised 16 November 2023; Accepted 30 November 2023; Published 20 December 2023

Academic Editor: Qinglin Wu

Copyright © 2023 Hany S. Abdo et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The potential of ecofriendly biochar, a carbon-rich byproduct of biomass pyrolysis, as a low-cost solid lubricating filler for low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) sustainable biocomposites is investigated in this work. Tensile strength, hardness,
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), melting flow index (MFI), tensile test, flexural test, and frictional tests were used to
characterize the biocomposites’ mechanical, thermal, and tribological properties. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)
was used to assess the chemical composition of the biochar, while field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) was
used to capture the biochar morphology. The results showed that the incorporation of biochar in LDPE matrix increased the
mechanical characteristics of the biocomposites and resulted in a significant increase in tensile strength, flexural strength, and
hardness. More specifically, the LDPE+10 wt% composite outperformed the pure LDPE matrix by 1.9% in tensile strength and
47% in flexural strength. Furthermore, integrating biochar into LDPE composites enhances thermal stability, lowers the melt
flow index (MFI), and boosts the hardness by 24.3% for the composite with 10% biochar content. Furthermore, biochar
improves wear resistance and durability, with the LDPE10 composite exhibiting a friction coefficient that is 56.3% lower than
pure LDPE. These findings indicate that biochar is a viable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly filler for improving the
performance of LDPE-based biocomposites for many varieties of applications.

1. Introduction in industries including agriculture, carbon sequestration,

and waste management [12–14]. Its distinguishing charac-
The increased need for sustainable materials, along with the teristics, such as large surface area, porosity, and chemical
growing environmental concerns about traditional plastics, stability, make it an appealing choice for use as a filler in
has resulted in the creation of biocomposites, which com- polymer composites [15–18]. Furthermore, the generation
bine the benefits of both natural and synthetic materials [1, of biochar from renewable biomass resources facilitates the
2]. Because of its great processability [3], cheap cost [4], material’s overall sustainability [19–21]. The addition of bio-
and desired mechanical quality, low-density polyethylene char not only improves the material’s overall sustainability,
(LDPE) is a commonly used thermoplastic polymer [5, 6]. but it also offers prospective advantages in mechanical, ther-
However, its nonbiodegradable nature and reliance on fossil mal, and tribological capabilities for both metallic [22] and
fuels have prompted environmental concerns [7, 8]. In this polymeric matrices [23]. Furthermore, using biochar as a
context, including biochar, a carbon-rich byproduct of bio- filler has the potential to minimize the dependency on non-
mass pyrolysis, or any other carbon material as a solid lubri- renewable resources like carbon black and graphite, which
cating filler in LDPE biocomposites, is a viable method for are often used in traditional polymer composites [24–26].
addressing these difficulties [9–11]. Biochar has received a Biochar-enhanced LDPE is anticipated to increase fric-
lot of interest in recent years because of its potential uses tional characteristics since it acts as a solid lubricant, with
2 International Journal of Polymer Science

a greater coefficient of friction and lower wear [27, 28]. This in polymer matrices and advocate for the incorporation of
renewable and recyclable material might be an appealing solid lubricants to mitigate these issues. Our work builds
alternative to existing fillers, lowering environmental impact upon this existing body of research by exploring the unique
and expenses while increasing LDPE plastic product perfor- properties of biochar as a solid lubricating filler and its com-
mance. Ferreira et al. [29] investigated the heat stability of patibility with LDPE.
polyethylene with various additives, including biochar as Therefore, the objective of this research is to investigate
filler in polyethylene composites, and they evaluated the per- the possibility of using environmentally friendly biochar as
formance of biochar generated from sugarcane bagasse over a low-cost solid lubricant filler for LDPE-sustainable bio-
the commercial carbon black. They discovered that adding composites. The aim is to evaluate the impact of biochar
biochar increased the thermal stability of the composites, inclusions on the mechanical, thermal, and tribological
with a 15% improvement in thermal characteristics when properties of the resulting biocomposites, as well as their
compared to commercial carbon black-filled composites. processability and reshaping properties. By exploring these
The composites’ differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) aspects, this study is aimed at providing valuable insights
examination revealed that the fillers had no substantial influ- into the potential applications of biochar in the polymer sec-
ence on the polymer’s transition temperature. The enthalpy tor and contributing to the development of sustainable
values for fusion and crystallization, on the other hand, materials. The novelty of this work lies in the specific focus
dropped due to the heterogeneous nucleation effect gener- on integrating biochar as a reinforcing ingredient in LDPE
ated by the addition of fillers to the polymer. They con- composites, which has not been extensively explored in pre-
cluded that biochar has the potential to replace commercial vious research. By filling this research gap, this study seeks to
carbon black as a filler in polyethylene composites, provid- advance the understanding of biochar’s potential as a sus-
ing enhanced thermal stability and comparable performance tainable filler material and its impact on the properties of
in other parameters. LDPE-based biocomposites. The outcomes of this investiga-
According to Chinmoyee Das et al. [30], biochar is a tion will not only contribute to the scientific knowledge in
good addition for polymer composites, providing consider- this field but also have practical implications for the develop-
able improvements in mechanical, thermal, and electrical ment of more environmentally friendly and high-
characteristics. Its lightweight nature, greater heat stability, performance polymer materials.
and decay resistance make it a more appealing alternative
than natural fillers such as wood powder and traditional 2. Experimental Procedure
mineral fillers. Biochar is inexpensive and easy to get due
to its simplicity of manufacturing from diverse lignocellu- 2.1. Materials. The base polymeric matrix used in the study
losic sources. Giorcelli et al. [18] investigated the mechanical was low-density polyethylene (LDPE) from TASNEE LD,
characteristics of epoxy resin-based polymer composites Saudi Arabia. The specific grade selected was 0725 N, which
made with biochar generated from maple trees that had been has a melt flow index of 14.75 g/10 min. Biochar was pro-
pyrolyzed at two different temperatures. Their research duced in our laboratory through another project based on
revealed that adding a little proportion of biochar (equiva- the production of biofuels from agricultural waste.
lent to or more than 2 wt%) can improve the composite’s
mechanical characteristics. Zhang et al. [31] studied the 2.2. Sample Preparation. Biochar is prepared through the
effects of large biochar loadings on biochar-added compos- burning of agricultural waste at 600°C in an atmosphere of
ites to maximize agricultural waste usage. According to the inert nitrogen gas. This process takes around 4 hours to gen-
study, the inclusion of biochar improved the mechanical erate biooil before cooling down the furnace, and the result-
characteristics of HDPE, resulting in high biochar loading- ing biochar is ground to a fine powder in order to use it as a
filled composites with good mechanical characteristics. The bio filler into LDPE matrix.
composites also have high stiffness, elasticity, creep resis- The LDPE was mixed with biochar powder at various
tance, and antistress relaxation properties. Although increas- weight percentages of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt% at room tem-
ing biochar loading lowered the composites’ water perature using a 300 rpm mixer for 10 minutes. This was
resistance, they improved their flame retardancy. done to ensure that the biochar powders were evenly distrib-
Based on our present understanding and an evaluation uted around the LDPE pellets. The premixing process is
of the existing literature, it appears that no research has been aimed at achieving a homogeneous mixture of the LDPE
conducted specifically focusing on the integration of biochar and biochar powders. A twin-screw extruder manufactured
as a reinforcing ingredient in low-density polyethylene by Lab Tech Engineering Company in Thailand (Model
(LDPE) composites. This research gap presents an opportu- LHFD1-130718) was used to extrude the mixtures, as illus-
nity for further investigation, as the unique features of bio- trated in Figure 1. The extruder had nine heating zones that
char have the potential to bring significant improvements started at 150°C and gradually increased up to 225°C at the
to the performance of LDPE-based products. The problem extruder nozzle tip. In order to achieve a consistent compo-
statement is rooted in the need to improve the wear resis- sition, the screw speed for the extrusion process was opti-
tance of LDPE, particularly in applications where traditional mized to run at 40 rpm for two consecutive shots. This
lubrication methods may be less effective or environmentally adjustment resulted in a highly uniform composition with
undesirable. This concept is supported by several studies, homogeneous dispersed biochar in the LDPE matrix. After
including [32, 33], which highlight the challenges of wear the extrusion process, the composite wire is pulled by a set
International Journal of Polymer Science 3

Quartz
Burning reactor
tube

Fine grinding
Agricultural waste Tube furnace Produced biochar
Bio oil

Mixture
feed

Biochar powder
Twin screw extruder LDPE pellets

Injection Feeder
ram
Nozzle

Nanocomposite Produced
Pelletizer
pellets Injection molding samples

Figure 1: Schematic of the biocomposites sample preparation steps.

of traction rollers and moves towards a water bath for imme- was used for analyzing the SEM micrographs. ImageJ is a
diate cooling. This ensures that the wire is solidified in its free program that was used to analyze the pore size distribu-
desired shape and can maintain its structural integrity. The tion. The sample’s MFI was determined using the ST-400A
process of cooling the composite wire is essential to ensure melt flow index tester from China using the ASTM standard
that it can be used for its intended purpose without deforma- D1238 [34], at a temperature of 250°C and a weight of 5 kg.
tion or damage. Once the wire has cooled down, it passes The MFI is an essential indicator of the viscosity of a poly-
through a pelletizer equipped with the same extruder to mer and is used to assess its processability. The MFI mea-
cut it into small and uniform pellets. surement gives useful information on thermoplastic flow
The last step in the production process involves feeding characteristics and may be used for verifying the material
the prepared pellets into an injection molding machine, compatibility for particular applications.
manufactured by Chen Hsong company in Hong Kong Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was done on LDPE
(Model JM138-Ai-SVP/2). This process is used to create composites utilizing a TA Instrument TGA-Q600 equip-
the final nanocomposite samples required for testing and ment. Thermal analysis was performed in a nitrogen atmo-
characterization. The injection nozzle has four different bar- sphere on the samples in an alumina pan. The temperature
rel temperature zones, started by 180°C and ended by 220°C range was 25 to 600 degrees Celsius, with a heating rate of
at the tip of the nozzle, each carefully controlled to ensure 10 degrees Celsius per minute.
consistency in the final product shown in Figure 2. Once The Shore-D hardness of the composite was determined
the injection molding process is complete, the samples can using the durometer and following ASTMD2240-15 stan-
be further tested and analyzed for their properties and dard [35]. The average reading was calculated from five
performance. measurements, which were recorded after two seconds of
contact with the sample surface to ensure accuracy. Flexural
2.3. Characterization and Testing. The biochar morphology tests were conducted on the composite samples in accor-
was investigated using FE-SEM, and the chemical composi- dance with ASTM D790 standard [36] using a 3385H
tion of the composite samples was analyzed using EDS INSTRON testing machine of 150 kN load capacity. The
attached to the same SEM microscope. The FE-SEM model crosshead was moved at a speed of 2 mm/min, and a three-
used was JEOL JSM-7600F from Tokyo, Japan, with Oxford point mechanism was set with a support span of 50 mm.
EDS accessory on it. These methods allowed for a detailed Each composition was tested using five samples. Five test
analysis of the filler material, providing valuable information replicates of the tensile test were performed in accordance
for understanding the characteristics and possible applica- with ASTM D638-14 standard [37] using the same above-
tions of this material. mentioned INSTRON tensile testing machine at a crosshead
The NKT-N9 laser particle size analyzer was used to speed of 2 mm/min. Type I samples with dimensions shown
characterize the particle size distribution of biofillers. ImageJ in Figure 2 were utilized for the test.
4 International Journal of Polymer Science

� 58
115

Tribology
19

13
sample
57

3
Bending sample
85

25
75
R76

4 Impact
50

2 Tensile samples
samples

All dimensions in (mm) 165

Figure 2: Tensile and bending samples’ dimensions according to ASTM D638 and ASTM D790 standards.

(a) (b)

Element Weight%
C 66.37
O 23.67
K 1.57
Ca 1.11
Pt 7.28
Totals 100.00

(c) (d)

Figure 3: (a, b) SEM micrographs of the produced biochar filler at different magnifications, (c) EDS analysis showing the chemical
composition of the biochar, and (d) ImageJ analysis for the biochar porosity fraction.

The Bruker tribometer (UNMT-1 L) with a ball-on-desk of the LDPE/biochar composites were evaluated during the
setup was used to perform the tribology test. The rotating wear test with an applied load of 50 N for 30-minute time
desk, which is our composite sample, had a speed of intervals. The results of the wear test will be crucial in estab-
100 rpm, while the ball was made of chrome steel (E52100, lishing the fabricated composites’ reliability and durability.
HRC 63) and had a diameter of 10 mm. The composite sam-
ples were tested at room temperature under dry sliding con- 3. Results and Discussion
ditions according to the procedure of ASTM G99-95
standard [38] to evaluate the tribological properties of the 3.1. Biochar Characterization. Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show
samples. The wear performance and coefficient of friction scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of
International Journal of Polymer Science 5

10 100

9 90

8 80

Differential distribution (%)

Cumulative percentage (%)

7 70

6 60

5 50

4 40

3 30

2 20

1 10

0 0
1 10 100
Particle diameter (�m)
Differential distribution
Cumulative percentage

Figure 4: Particle size distribution for the produced biochar filler.

16 0
Melting flow index MFI (g/10 min)

15
–5
14

Reduction % in MFI
–10
13

12 –15

11 –15.4
–20
10 –18.8
–27.3
–25
9 –28.5

8 –30
LDPE 0 LDPE 2.5 LDPE 5 LDPE 7.5 LDPE 10

Figure 5: Melting flow index values for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

biochar produced for strengthening the low-density polyeth- surface area. As a result, the contact surfaces between the
ylene (LDPE) matrix. The images, which were taken at var- matrix and the filler grow proportionally. Such an increase
ious magnifications, show that the granulated biochar has a has a major influence on the material’s mechanical
significant degree of porosity. A conclusion that was con- characteristics.
firmed by ImageJ analysis reveals that the median size of
the biochar particles has been identified to be in the range 3.1.1. Particle Size Distribution. The biochar fine powder
of 20 and 80 μm, while the average pore size was determined underwent particle size distribution analysis using an
to be between 2 and 12 micrometers. As shown in NKT-N9 laser particle size analyzer from China. This test,
Figure 3(d), the overall porosity percentage is around 64%. conducted at room temperature with water as a dispersant,
The chemical composition of the biochar was investi- yielded the results depicted in Figure 4. The graph indicates
gated using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). a particle size range between 10 and 100 micrometers. The
The results show that the biochar consists mainly of carbon software estimated the D10, D50, and D90 values to be
and oxygen, with small residual calcium and potassium con- 20.24 μm, 42.91 μm, and 79.08 μm, respectively.
stituents. The platinum in the EDS pattern is due to the plat-
inum coating that was applied to the sample prior to 3.2. Composite Characterization
imaging. This coating improves the conductivity of the sam-
ple’s surface, lowering the charging impact to get clear SEM 3.2.1. Melting Flow Index (MFI). At 250°C and 5 kg, the MFI
image without charging spots. of LDPE was determined to be 14.81 g/10 min. Figure 5
The observed porosity in the biochar structure helps to clearly shows that adding carbon-structured types such as
create channels throughout the filler, increasing the overall biochar to LDPE resulted in a drop in MFI, which is
6 International Journal of Polymer Science

110

90

25
70 20
Weight (%)

15
50
10

5
30
0

–5
10
450 470 490 510 530 550

–10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Temperature (°C)
LDPE 0 LDPE 7.5
LDPE 2.5 LDPE 10
LDPE 5

Figure 6: TGA curves for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

Table 1: TGA results for pure LDPE and its composites with biochar.

Initial degradation Maximum thermal degradation Final degradation Carbon residue at

Samples
temperature T 5% (°C) temperature T max (°C) temperature T f (°C) 600°C (wt%)
LDPE 0 424.61 474.59 487.92 0.01
LDPE
429.88 479.12 491.62 2.45
2.5
LDPE 5 431.78 479.19 492.55 2.47
LDPE
431.86 479.78 493.98 4.16
7.5
LDPE
432.36 479.96 493.48 9.48
10

consistent with prior research [39, 40]. The low MFI of and weight of carbon residue at 600°C. All samples displayed
LDPE with biochar is related to the fact that carbon additives a single degradation process.
have a high molecular weight and a widely scattered struc- As the biochar content increased, the T 5% , T max , T f , and
ture. This implies that they can interact with the LDPE carbon residue values for the LDPE composites also
chains, reducing mobility and causing a fall in flow rate increased to varying extents. These thermal data indicate
and an increase in viscosity. Furthermore, the high thermal that the incorporation of biochar enhances the thermal sta-
stability of carbon additions might contribute to a reduction bility of LDPE. This improvement can be attributed to the
in MFI since they need more energy to melt and hence are biochar’s ability to reduce chain motion and thermal vibra-
more resistant to flow [41, 42]. tion, acting as an effective thermal stabilizer and preventing
the complete thermal deterioration of LDPE. Similar find-
3.2.2. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Thermogravimet- ings have been reported in other studies that investigated
ric analysis (TGA) experiments were conducted to evaluate the reinforcement of polymer composites with carbon struc-
the thermal stability of the biochar-reinforced LDPE com- ture additions [43, 44].
posites and compare them to the unreinforced neat LDPE.
Figure 6 presents the TGA curves for the neat LDPE and 3.3. Mechanical Testing
biochar-incorporated composite samples, while Table 1
summarizes the key parameters, including the initial degra- 3.3.1. Shore-D Hardness Test. Figure 7 depicts the results for
dation temperature (T 5% ), maximum thermal degradation determining the hardness values of various produced com-
temperature (T max ), final degradation temperature (T f ), posites using the Shore-D type. As the biochar content
International Journal of Polymer Science 7

60 35

30

Improvement in hardness (%)

Shore-D hardness (D-index)
56
25
52 24.3 20

48 17.1 15
8.3 14.0 10
44
5
0.0
40 0
LDPE 0 LDPE 2.5 LDPE 5 LDPE 7.5 LDPE 10

Figure 7: Shore-D hardness values (D-index) for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

14

12

10
Tensile stress (MPa)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Tensile strain (mm/mm)

LDPE 0 LDPE 7.5

LDPE 2.5 LDPE 10
LDPE 5

Figure 8: Tensile stress-strain curves for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

increased, it correspondingly increased the hardness levels. sile strength, yield strength, Young’s modulus, and failure
When 10% biochar was used in the LDPE matrix, the high- strain of the composites. It is worth noting that the failure
est enhancement of 24.3% was obtained. The improvement strain (FS) refers to the point at which the tensile stress expe-
in hardness associated with higher biochar concentration is riences a sharp decline.
due to an increase in biochar surface area and pore volume The results indicate a notable enhancement in Young’s
[45]. This increases the number of contact sites between bio- modulus (18%), yield strength (32.67%), and tensile strength
char and the LDPE matrix, which improves the interfacial (1.9%) when the biochar loading reaches 10 wt%, suggesting
interaction and the mechanical characteristics of the com- an effective reinforcement of the biochar. However, an
posite material [46]. increase in biochar loading leads to a rapid decrease in the
failure strain (FS) reaching 49.5%, which is a common
3.3.2. Tensile and Flexural Test. Tensile test was conducted behavior observed in composites. This decrease is believed
on the fabricated composite samples to examine the varia- to be attributed to premature failure occurring at the biochar
tions in key mechanical properties, including ultimate tensile aggregates. Notably, Figure 2 demonstrates a moderate jump
strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), Young’s modulus (E), in Young’s modulus when the biochar content transitions
and failure strain (FS). The stress/strain curves of the bio- from 7.5 to 10 wt%. This can be attributed to the structural
char/LDPE composites, with different biochar contents, are changes within the composites as a continuous carbon net-
visually represented in Figure 8. Additionally, Figures 9 work forms throughout the matrix with a biochar content
and 10 and Table 2 provide a summary of the ultimate ten- of 10 wt% [47].
8 International Journal of Polymer Science

12.8 10

9.5
12.7

Ultimate strength (MPa)

9

Yield strength (MPa)

12.6
8.5

8
12.5

7.5
12.4
7

12.3 6.5
LDPE 0 LDPE 2.5 LDPE 5 LDPE 7.5 LDPE 10
Ultimate strength (UTS)
Yield strength (YS)

Figure 9: Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield strength (YS) for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

150 1.2

145 1.1

140 1

Failure strain (mm/mm)

Young’s modulus (MPa)

135 0.9

130 0.8

125 0.7

120 0.6

115 0.5

110 0.4
LDPE 0 LDPE 2.5 LDPE 5 LDPE 7.5 LDPE 10
Young’s modulus (E)
Failure strain (FS)

Figure 10: Young’s modulus (E) and failure strain (FS) for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

Table 2: Tensile parameters for the pure LDPE and its composites with biochar.

Sample Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (MPa) Yield strength (YS) (MPa) Failure strain (FS) (mm/mm) Young’s modulus (E) (MPa)
LDPE 0 12 45 ± 0 03 6 95 ± 0 2 1 07 ± 0 02 117 22 ± 1 5
LDPE 2.5 12 49 ± 0 05 7 51 ± 0 3 0 98 ± 0 02 121 32 ± 2 7
LDPE 5 12 58 ± 0 03 8 11 ± 0 2 0 83 ± 0 02 126 67 ± 1 3
LDPE 7.5 12 6 ± 0 02 8 52 ± 0 4 0 64 ± 0 02 127 71 ± 2 0
LDPE 10 12 69 ± 0 04 9 22 ± 0 5 0 54 ± 0 02 138 36 ± 2 2

Upon examination, a distinct correlation is discernible ing that occurs between the biochar and the LDPE matrix.
between the proportion of biochar content in the composite This strong bond at the interface facilitates efficient stress
and the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The peak UTS transfer, thereby augmenting the overall mechanical resil-
value, recorded at 12.69 MPa, was achieved when the biochar ience of the composite material.
loading was at 10 wt%. This enhancement in tensile strength Figure 11 shows a graph of the determined flexural
could potentially be ascribed to the robust interfacial bond- strength of the composites. The figure clearly shows that as
International Journal of Polymer Science 9

16

14

12
Flexure stress (MPa)
10

8 13
12
6
11
4 10
9
2 8
0.07 0.072 0.074 0.076 0.078 0.08
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Flexure strain (mm/mm)

LDPE 10 LDPE 2.5

LDPE 7.5 LDPE 0
LDPE 5

Figure 11: Flexure stress-strain curves for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites.

0.35

0.3

0.25
Friction coefficient (�)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time (sec)
LDPE 0 LDPE 7.5
LDPE 2.5 LDPE 10
LDPE 5

Figure 12: Changes in the coefficient of friction for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites under 50 N applied load and 30-minute time
intervals.

the biochar concentration in the LDPE matrix increases, 3.4. Tribological Performance (Wear Test). Biochar filler can
correspondingly rises the flexural strength. This increase in improve the wear behavior of LDPE composite as a solid
strength might be due to the incorporation of a significant lubricant. The addition of biochar filler reduces the friction
amount of hard and inflexible carbon-based components. between the composite’s surface and the counter-body,
These carbon additions improve the composite’s resistance resulting in decreased wear. The filler’s solid lubrication
to deformation, resulting in higher flexural strength values. properties substantially enhance the composite’s wear resis-
When LDPE was mixed with 10% biochar, the most notable tance and durability.
benefit was a 47% increase in flexural load at a strain of To investigate the effects of incorporating different
0.07 mm/mm. weight fractions of biochar on the tribological properties of
10 International Journal of Polymer Science

0.35 0.005

0.3 0.0045

Friction coefficient (�)

0.25

Weight loss (mg)

0.004
0.2
0.0035
0.15
0.003
0.1

0.05 0.0025

0 0.002
LDPE 0 LDPE 2.5 LDPE 5 LDPE 7.5 LDPE 10

Figure 13: Changes in weight loss for neat LDPE and LDPE/biochar composites under 50 N applied load and 30-minute time intervals.

Table 3: Wear parameters for the pure LDPE and its composites with biochar.

Sample COF (μ) Wear amount (mg) Mass loss (kg) Wear resistance (kg−1) Wear rate (kg/S) Specific wear rate (kg/N S)
LDPE 0 0.311 0.0042 4200 0.000238 2.33 0.0467
LDPE 2.5 0.292 0.0035 3500 0.000286 1.94 0.0389
LDPE 5 0.235 0.0032 3200 0.000313 1.78 0.0356
LDPE 7.5 0.171 0.0029 2900 0.000345 1.61 0.0322
LDPE 10 0.136 0.0027 2700 0.00037 1.50 0.0300

Debris
Plowing Smoother surface

Plastic deformation

(a) (b)

Figure 14: SEM images of the (a) pure LDPE and (b) biochar/LDPE 10 nanocomposite worn surfaces.

LDPE composites, a series of frictional tests were conducted. The findings revealed that the LDPE10 composite exhib-
The composite samples were subjected to friction against a ited the lowest coefficient of friction, measured at 0.136. This
stainless-steel ball, with the tests consistently performed at value was 56.3% lower than the coefficient of friction
a rotational speed of 100 rpm. The applied loads were observed in pure LDPE (0.311) under a normal load of
adjusted to 50 N. During the tests, the average friction coef- 50 N. Table 3 presents the wear parameters, where the
ficient and wear mass loss were carefully measured. The decrease in the coefficient of friction can be attributed to
results were graphically represented in Figure 12, which the formation of a carbon debris layer resulting from the
illustrates the fluctuations in the friction coefficient in presence of biochar. This layer acts as a protective barrier,
response to changes in the biochar content. The steady- reducing the abrasive wear between the two bodies in con-
state coefficients of friction calculated based on the average tact. The formation of the carbon debris layer occurs due
values as well as the weight loss are given as a function of to the cleavage of carbon within the biochar during loading.
the biochar content in Figure 13. Notably, the inclusion of The weak van der Waals bonds between the layers of biochar
biochar in the LDPE composite samples led to a reduction contribute to this phenomenon. As the concentration of bio-
in the friction coefficient and wear behavior compared to char in the composite increases, more cleavage occurs, lead-
pure LDPE, which is fully consistence with other previous ing to a decrease in the coefficient of friction. This suggests
studies [32, 33, 48]. that the incorporation of biochar can effectively enhance
International Journal of Polymer Science 11

the tribological properties of LDPE composites by reducing Additional Points

friction and wear.
To delve deeper into the analysis of the worn surfaces, Highlights. (i) Fabrication of LDPE biocomposites reinforced
we conducted SEM imaging on both the pure LDPE and by ecofriendly biochar. (ii) Ecofriendly biocomposites
higher biochar percent concentration samples, as depicted achieved high-performance thermal and mechanical proper-
in Figure 14. Upon examination, it is evident that the worn ties. (iii) Biochar successfully utilized as a solid lubricating
surface of the pure LDPE sample (LDPE 0) has suffered sig- filler for enhancing tribological behavior.
nificant damage, displaying areas of plastic deformation and
plowing. In stark contrast, the SEM images reveal that the Conflicts of Interest
surfaces of the nanocomposite sample (LDPE 10) exhibit
considerably less damage compared to the pure LDPE The authors declare no conflict of interest.
sample.
This observation leads us to conclude that the incorpora- Acknowledgments
tion of biochar filler has contributed to the enhancement of
strength and resistance in the LDPE nanocomposites. The The authors extend their appreciation to Researchers Sup-
worn surface of the LDPE-10 sample showcases a remark- porting Project number (RSPD2023R1098), King Saud Uni-
ably smooth and intact appearance, suggesting that this par- versity, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
ticular composition of biochar filler represents the optimal
choice when used in conjunction with LDPE. By shedding References
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