SESSION:2023-2024

SCXVCVSSS
SUBJECT: COMPUTER SCIENCE
ESSION:2024
2222202420
SUBMITTED BY
23-24

 NAME: ZURGHUNA GUL

 ROLL NO: 13646

 ASSIGNMENT:1

 SUBMISSION DATE: 27TH OCT

 SUBMITTED TO: SIR IMRAN

 COURSE:OPERATING SYSTEM
. QUESTION:1
We have stressed the need for an operating system to make efficient use of the computing
hardware. When is it appropriate for the operating system to forsake this principle and to “waste”
resources? Why is such a system not really wasteful?

INTRODUCTION

Operating systems (OS) are designed to manage hardware resources efficiently, ensuring optimal
performance and utilization. However, there are certain scenarios where it may be appropriate
for an OS to prioritize other factors over strict resource efficiency.

SITUATIONS FOR RESOURCE "WASTING"

1. USER EXPERIENCE ENHANCEMENT

In some cases, an OS may allocate additional resources to enhance user experience. For example,
background processes may be given higher priority to ensure smooth performance of foreground
applications, even if this means consuming more CPU or memory than strictly necessary.

2. REDUNDANCY AND FAULT TOLERANCE

An OS might employ redundancy strategies, such as maintaining multiple copies of critical

processes or data, to enhance system reliability. This redundancy can lead to higher resource
consumption, but it ensures that the system remains operational in the event of failures.

3. PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION FOR SPECIFIC TASKS

Certain applications may benefit from increased resource allocation, such as multimedia
processing or gaming. The OS might temporarily "waste" resources by prioritizing these
applications, allowing them to run more smoothly and effectively, thereby improving overall
user satisfaction.

4. SECURITY MEASURES
To bolster security, an OS may allocate extra resources for monitoring and safeguarding against
threats. This could include running additional security services that consume more system
resources but are essential for maintaining a secure environment.

WHY SUCH SYSTEMS ARE NOT REALLY WASTEFUL

1. CONTEXTUAL EFFICIENCY

While it may seem like resources are being wasted, the context in which they are used matters.
Allocating resources for user experience, reliability, or security contributes to overall system
performance and user satisfaction, which are crucial for practical usability.

2. LONG-TERM BENEFITS

Investing resources in redundancy and security can prevent larger issues down the line, such as
data loss or downtime, which could have a far greater cost in terms of time and resources.

3. DYNAMIC RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Modern operating systems often employ dynamic resource management techniques that allow
them to reallocate resources based on current needs. This means that while certain resources
might be temporarily underutilized, they can be efficiently reallocated as demands shift.

QUESTION:2

What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in writing an operating system for
a real-time environment?

MAIN DIFFICULTY IN WRITING AN OPERATING SYSTEM FOR A

REAL-TIME ENVIRONMENT

1. Timing Constraints
a. Deterministic Behavior

Real-time systems require predictable response times. Programmers must ensure that all tasks
complete within specified time limits, which can be challenging due to varying execution times.

b. Deadline Management

Handling tasks with strict deadlines necessitates precise scheduling. Programmers must
implement effective scheduling algorithms to meet real-time constraints, complicating the
design.

2. Resource Management

a. Resource Allocation

Real-time applications often have limited resources. Ensuring that high-priority tasks receive the
necessary resources while avoiding starvation for lower-priority tasks is a complex challenge.

b. Contention and Blocking

Minimizing contention for shared resources is critical. Programmers need to implement

strategies to avoid blocking scenarios that can jeopardize real-time performance.

3. Complexity of System Design

a. Increased Complexity

Real-time systems can involve intricate interactions between hardware and software.
Programmers must design systems that can handle these complexities without compromising
performance.

b. Integration of Multiple Components

Real-time environments often consist of multiple interacting components, each with its timing
requirements. Coordinating these components while maintaining overall system stability adds to
the complexity.

4. Testing and Debugging Challenges

a. Non-Deterministic Behavior

Testing real-time systems is difficult due to their need for deterministic behavior. Traditional
debugging methods may not suffice, requiring specialized tools and approaches.

b. Stress Testing

Real-time systems must be rigorously stress-tested to ensure they can handle worst-case
scenarios. This process can be time-consuming and requires careful planning.

5. Trade-offs Between Performance and Reliability

a. Balancing Act

Programmers must often make trade-offs between performance and reliability. Optimizing for
speed may lead to increased risk of failure, complicating the design process.

b. Impact of Failures

In real-time environments, failures can have severe consequences. Programmers must implement
robust error-handling mechanisms while ensuring that performance standards are met.

QUESTION:3

Keeping in mind the various definitions of operating system, consider whether the operating
system should include applications such as web browsers and mail programs. Argue both that it
should and that it should not, and support your answers.
Argument For Including Applications

1. Enhanced User Experience

Including applications like web browsers and mail programs within the operating system can
streamline the user experience. Users would benefit from seamless integration and optimized
performance since the OS would tailor these applications for better compatibility with the
underlying system.

2. Simplified Access and Updates

By bundling essential applications with the OS, users would have immediate access to necessary
tools without the need for separate installations. This approach also simplifies updates, as users
could receive consistent and timely updates alongside OS upgrades, ensuring security and
functionality.

3. Consistency Across Platforms

Having standardized applications as part of the OS can provide a consistent experience across
different devices. This could enhance usability and reduce the learning curve for users
transitioning between different systems.

4. Resource Optimization

The operating system can optimize resource management for bundled applications, ensuring they
run efficiently and effectively. This could lead to better performance, particularly in terms of
memory and processing power.

Argument Against Including Applications

1. Separation of Concerns
Operating systems should focus on managing hardware resources and providing a platform for
applications, while applications like web browsers and mail programs should be independent.
This separation allows for greater flexibility and specialization, enabling developers to focus on
application functionality without being constrained by OS considerations.

2. Increased Complexity and Bloat

Bundling applications within the OS can lead to increased complexity and system bloat. Users
may find themselves with unnecessary applications that they do not use, which can consume
valuable resources and complicate system management.

3. Market Diversity and Choice

Keeping applications separate from the operating system promotes a diverse software market.
Users can choose their preferred applications based on their specific needs and preferences rather
than being limited to what the OS offers. This encourages innovation and competition among
application developers.

4. Security Concerns

Including applications within the OS can create potential security vulnerabilities. If an

application bundled with the OS is compromised, it may expose the entire system to threats.
Keeping applications separate can help mitigate this risk by isolating potential vulnerabilities.

QUESTION:4

How does the distinction between kernel-mode and user-mode function as a rudimentary form of
protection (security) system?

Distinction Between Kernel-Mode and User-Mode as a Protection Mechanism

Introduction
The distinction between kernel-mode and user-mode is fundamental to operating system design,
serving as a rudimentary form of protection and security. This separation helps maintain system
stability and security by controlling access to critical resources and functions.

1. Definitions

a. Kernel-Mode

Kernel-mode is a privileged mode of operation where the operating system has full access to all
hardware resources and system memory. In this mode, the OS can execute any CPU instruction
and reference any memory address.

b. User-Mode

User-mode is a restricted mode of operation where applications run with limited access to system
resources. In this mode, programs cannot directly access hardware or critical system functions,
ensuring a controlled environment.

2. Access Control

a. Restricted Resource Access

The separation ensures that user-mode applications cannot access or modify kernel memory or
hardware directly. This prevents accidental or malicious alterations to critical system
components, thereby enhancing security.

b. Controlled System Calls

When a user-mode application needs to perform operations that require higher privileges (e.g.,
accessing hardware), it must make system calls to the kernel. This controlled interaction provides
a checkpoint for the OS to validate requests and enforce security policies.

3. Error Isolation

a. Fault Containment
If a user-mode application crashes or behaves unexpectedly, it does not directly affect the kernel
or other applications running in user-mode. This isolation helps maintain system stability and
allows the OS to continue functioning normally.

b. Protection Against Malicious Activities

The separation limits the potential damage caused by malicious user-mode programs. Even if a
user-mode application is compromised, it cannot easily gain control over kernel resources,
protecting the overall integrity of the operating system.

4. Security Enforcement

a. Privilege Levels

The operating system can enforce different privilege levels for various types of tasks. Critical
system functions can only be executed in kernel-mode, while user applications operate under
stricter limitations, preventing unauthorized access.

b. Sandboxing

User-mode applications can be sandboxed to restrict their access to system resources further.
This containment strategy helps prevent harmful activities, such as unauthorized data access or
system manipulation.

5. Audit and Monitoring

a. Monitoring System Calls

The OS can monitor system calls made by user-mode applications to detect suspicious behavior.
This capability allows for enhanced security measures, such as logging and alerting when
unusual activity occurs.

b. Resource Usage Tracking

By tracking resource usage in user-mode, the OS can identify potential security threats, such as
resource exhaustion attacks, and take corrective actions to mitigate risks.

QUESTION:5

. Distinguish between the client–server and peer-to-peer models of distributed systems. 6. What
is the purpose of system calls?

Distinction Between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Models

1. Client-Server Model

a. Definition

In the client-server model, there are two main roles: clients and servers. Clients are devices or
applications that request services, while servers provide those services or resources.

b. Structure

 Centralized Control: Servers manage resources and provide them to clients. This central
control simplifies management and security.
 Dedicated Servers: Servers are typically powerful machines designed to handle many
requests simultaneously.

c. Examples

Common examples include web servers that host websites and email servers that manage email
communications.
PEER-TO-PEER MODEL

a. Definition

In a peer-to-peer (P2P) model, every participant (or "peer") can act both as a client and a server.
This means that each peer can request services and also provide services to others.

b. Structure

 Decentralized Control: There is no central server; instead, all peers share resources
equally. This enhances resilience and reduces the risk of a single point of failure.
 Resource Sharing: Peers can directly share files, data, or services without needing a
dedicated server.

c. Examples

Common examples include file-sharing networks like BitTorrent and communication

applications like Skype.
QUESTION:6

What is the purpose of system calls?

PURPOSE OF SYSTEM CALLS

1. Definition
System calls are special functions that allow user applications to request services from the
operating system. They serve as an interface between the application and the OS.

2. Key Purposes

a. Resource Management

System calls enable applications to manage system resources like memory, files, and devices.
For example, when an application needs to read a file, it makes a system call to the OS to
perform that action.

b. Security and Protection

By using system calls, applications operate in user mode, which has limited access to critical
system resources. This ensures that the OS can control how applications interact with hardware
and other resources, enhancing security.

c. Abstraction

System calls provide a simplified way for applications to use complex OS functions. Instead of
dealing with low-level hardware operations, applications can make high-level requests through
system calls.

d. Inter-process Communication

System calls facilitate communication between different processes running on the same system.
This is crucial for applications that need to share data or synchronize activities.

3. Examples

Common system calls include:

 open(): to open a file.

 read(): to read data from a file.
 write(): to write data to a file.
  fork(): to create a new process.

QUESTION:7

. What are the five major activities of an operating system with regard to process management?
8. What are the three major activities of an operating system with regard to secondary-storage
management?

FIVE MAJOR ACTIVITIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM IN PROCESS

MANAGEMENT

There are five major activities that an operating system must maintain in order to manage the
processes that it is running. Without these five activities, an operating system would not be able
to remain stable for any length of time.

Process Creation

When you first turn on your computer, the operating system opens processes to run services for
everything from the print spooler to computer security. When you log in to the computer and
start programs, the programs create dependent processes. A process is not the program itself, but
rather the instructions that the CPU uses to execute the program. A process either belongs to
Windows or to some other program that you have installed.

Processing State

The state of a process may be "created," "running," "waiting," or "blocked." You can say that a
process is "waiting" the moment after you start its parent program, and before it has been
processed by the CPU. A process is "running" when the CPU is processing it. You can consider a
process "blocked" if the computer does not have enough memory to process it or if files
associated with the process cannot be located. All operating systems have some sort of process
handling system, though they have different names for each state.
Process Synchronization

Once processes are running, the operating system needs a way to ensure that no two processes
access the same resources at the same time. Specifically, no two processes can attempt to execute
the same area of code at once. If two processes did attempt to execute this code at the same time,
a crash could occur as they attempt to call the same files and send the same instructions to the
CPU at the same time. If two processes need to run the same code, one must wait for the other to
finish before proceeding.

Process Communication

The computer must ensure that processes can communicate with the CPU and with each other.
For example, a program can have many processes, and each process can have a different
permission level. A permission level is simply an indication of the level of access a process
should have to the system. Process communication ensures that the computer can determine the
permissions of each process. This is very important in preventing malware from deleting system
files or adding instructions to the operating system itself.

Deadlock Prevention

Finally, the computer must have a way to ensure that processes do not become deadlocked.
Deadlock occurs when two processes each require a resource that the other is currently using,
and so neither process can finish what it is doing. The resources cannot be released, and
programs lock up. You can also refer to this situation as a "circular wait." Operating systems
prevent deadlock in different ways, but the most common method is to force a process to declare
the resources it will need before it can start up. Alternatively, a process may be forced to request
resources in blocks, and then release the resources as it finishes with them.
FIVE MAJOR ACTIVITIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM IN PROCESS

MANAGEMENT

1. Process Creation and Termination

a. Creation

The operating system is responsible for creating processes when a new program is started. This
involves allocating necessary resources and setting up process control blocks (PCBs) to manage
process information.

b. Termination

When a process completes its task or is terminated by the user, the OS handles the clean-up
process, freeing up resources and updating process states.

2. Process Scheduling

a. Scheduling Algorithms

The OS determines the order in which processes are executed using various scheduling
algorithms (e.g., FIFO, Round Robin, Shortest Job First). This ensures efficient CPU utilization
and responsiveness.

b. Context Switching

The OS manages context switching between processes, saving the state of the current process
and loading the state of the next process to ensure smooth transitions and efficient multitasking.

3. Process Synchronization

a. Coordination
The OS provides mechanisms to synchronize processes that share resources, preventing conflicts
and ensuring data consistency.

b. Inter-process Communication (IPC)

The OS facilitates communication between processes, using methods such as message passing
and shared memory to allow them to exchange data safely.

4. Process State Management

a. State Transitions

Processes can be in different states (e.g., ready, running, waiting). The OS manages these states
and transitions, ensuring that processes move through their lifecycle correctly based on events
and scheduling.

b. Resource Allocation

The OS tracks and allocates resources (CPU time, memory) to processes according to their needs
and priority, optimizing overall system performance.

5. Deadlock Management

a. Deadlock Detection

The OS monitors processes to detect potential deadlocks, where two or more processes are
waiting indefinitely for resources held by each other.

b. Recovery and Prevention

The OS employs strategies for deadlock recovery and prevention, such as resource allocation
strategies and timeouts, to ensure smooth process execution.

QUESTION:8
What are the three major activities of an operating system with regard to secondary-storage
management?

THREE MAJOR ACTIVITIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM IN

SECONDARY-STORAGE MANAGEMENT

1. Storage Allocation

a. Space Management

The OS manages how space on secondary storage (like hard drives) is allocated to different files
and applications, keeping track of free and used space.

b. File System Organization

The OS organizes files into directories and manages file metadata, such as size, location, and
access permissions, ensuring efficient data retrieval and storage.

2. Disk Scheduling

a. Scheduling Algorithms

The OS implements disk scheduling algorithms (e.g., FCFS, SSTF, SCAN) to determine the
order in which disk I/O requests are processed, optimizing access times and improving overall
system performance.

b. Request Handling

The OS manages and queues I/O requests, ensuring that they are executed in a timely manner
and that the disk head is moved efficiently across the storage medium.

3. Data Backup and Recovery

a. Backup Strategies
The OS may include features for backing up data to prevent loss due to hardware failure,
accidental deletion, or corruption, ensuring data integrity and reliability.

b. Recovery Techniques

In case of failures, the OS provides recovery mechanisms, such as journaling or snapshots, to

restore data to a consistent state and minimize downtime.

QUESTION:9

What is the purpose of the command interpreter? Why is it usually separate from the kernel?

COMMAND INTERPRETER IS USUALLY SEPARATE FROM THE

KERNEL

1. Modularity

a. Separation of Concerns

Keeping the command interpreter separate from the kernel allows for a modular design. This
separation enables each component to focus on its specific tasks— the kernel manages system
resources while the interpreter handles user interactions.

b. Easier Maintenance

A modular architecture makes it easier to update or replace the command interpreter without
affecting the kernel, enhancing system maintainability.

2. Security and Stability

a. Reduced Risk
Separating the command interpreter from the kernel minimizes the risk of user errors or
malicious commands affecting the core operating system functions. This enhances system
stability and security.

b. Controlled Access

The kernel can enforce strict access controls, ensuring that user commands executed via the
interpreter do not have direct access to sensitive system resources, reducing potential
vulnerabilities.

3. Flexibility

a. Multiple Interfaces

By keeping the command interpreter separate, different interpreters can be used or developed
without modifying the kernel. This allows users to choose their preferred interface (e.g., bash,
zsh, PowerShell) based on their needs.

b. User Customization

Users can customize their command interpreters according to their preferences without
impacting the underlying kernel, providing a more tailored user experience.

QUESTION:10

The services and functions provided by an operating system can be divided into two main
categories. Briefly describe the two categories, and discuss how they differ.

Operating systems provide services and functions that can be broadly categorized into two main
types: system services and user services.

1. System Services:
These services are primarily concerned with the management of hardware and software resources
in the computer system. They ensure that the system operates efficiently and securely. Key
functions include:

 Process Management: Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.

 Memory Management: Manages the allocation and deallocation of memory space as
needed by processes.
 File System Management: Controls how data is stored, retrieved, and organized on
storage devices.
 Device Management: Interfaces with hardware devices, managing input and output
operations.
 Security and Access Control: Protects system resources from unauthorized access and
ensures data integrity.

2. User Services:

These services focus on providing an interface and tools for users to interact with the computer
system. They enhance user experience and productivity. Key functions include:

 User Interface: Provides graphical or command-line interfaces for user interaction.

 Application Support: Offers services for running application software, such as APIs and
libraries.
 User Account Management: Manages user identities and profiles, enabling
personalization and security.
 Utilities and Tools: Provides various software tools for tasks like file management,
system monitoring, and configuration.

DIFFERENCES:

The main difference between the two categories lies in their target audience and purpose.

SYSTEM SERVICES are designed to manage the underlying hardware and ensure
efficient system operation, acting primarily behind the scenes.
, USER SERVICES are aimed directly at users, enhancing their ability to interact with the
system and perform tasks effectively.

While system services prioritize resource management and security, user services emphasize
usability and user experience.

QUESTION:11

Describe three general methods for passing parameters to the operating system.

Parameters can be passed to the operating system using several methods, each suited for different
situations and system architectures. Here are three general methods:

1. Registers:

In this method, parameters are passed using CPU registers. When a user program makes a system
call, it can load the parameters into specific registers before invoking the operating system. This
method is efficient due to the speed of register access, but it is limited by the number of registers
available and the size of the parameters that can be passed.

2. Memory Block:

Another common method involves passing parameters through a memory block, often referred to
as a "parameter block" or "buffer." In this approach, the user program allocates a block of
memory to hold the parameters. It then provides the address of this block to the operating
system. This method allows for a larger and more complex set of parameters to be passed, as
there is no strict limit on the size of the memory block (other than system constraints).

3. Stack:

Parameters can also be passed via the call stack. When a function or system call is made,
parameters are pushed onto the stack in a specific order. The operating system retrieves these
parameters from the stack when processing the request. This method is straightforward and
compatible with many programming languages and calling conventions, but it can have
performance implications due to stack manipulation.

Each method has its trade-offs in terms of efficiency, complexity, and limitations on the size and
number of parameters. The choice of method often depends on the architecture of the system and
the specific requirements of the operating system.

QUESTION:12

Describe how you could obtain a statistical profile of the amount of time spent by a program
executing different sections of its code. Discuss the importance of obtaining such a statistical
profile.

s: One could issue periodic timer interrupts and monitor what instructions or what sections of
code are currently executing when the interrupts are delivered. A statistical profile of which
pieces of code were active should be consistent with the time spent by the program in different
sections of its code. Once such a statistical profile has been obtained, the programmer could
optimize those sections of code that are consuming more of the CPU resources

QUESTION:13

What are the five major activities of an operating system with regard to file management?

The five major activities of an operating system concerning file management are:

1. File Creation and Deletion:

 The operating system provides mechanisms for creating new files and directories as well
as deleting existing ones. This includes assigning unique identifiers and allocating space
on storage media.

2. File Organization and Storage:

  The OS determines how files are organized on storage devices, which can include file
systems (e.g., NTFS, ext4). It manages the structure of directories and how files are
indexed for efficient retrieval.

3. File Access and Manipulation:

 The operating system handles requests to read, write, and modify files. It ensures that
applications can access files using appropriate methods and APIs while maintaining data
integrity and consistency.

4. File Permissions and Security:

 The OS enforces access control policies to manage who can read, write, or execute files.
This includes setting permissions for users and groups, ensuring that unauthorized access
is prevented.

5. File Backup and Recovery:

 The operating system provides mechanisms for backing up files and restoring them in
case of loss or corruption. This may involve creating snapshots, maintaining version
histories, or offering restore points.

These activities work together to ensure that file management is efficient, secure, and user-
friendly within the operating system.

QUESTION:14

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the same system- call interface for
manipulating both files and devices?

ADVANTAGES

Each device can be accessed as though it was a file in the file system. Since most of the kernel
deals with devices through this file interface, it is relatively easy to add a new device driver by
implementing the hardware-specific code to support this abstract file interface. Therefore, this
benefits the development of both user program code, which can be written to access devices and
files in the same manner, and device driver code, which can be written to support a well-defined
API.

DISADVANTAGES

The disadvantage with using the same interface is that it might be difficult to capture the
functionality of certain devices within the context of the file access API, thereby either resulting
in a loss of functionality or a loss of performance. Some of this could be overcome by the use of
ioctl operation that provides a general purpose interface for processes to invoke operations on
devices

QUESTION:15

What is the main advantage of the microkernel approach to system design? How do user
programs and system services interact in a microkernel architecture? What are the disadvantages
of using the microkernel approach?

Benefits typically include the following (a) adding a new service does not require modifying the
kernel, (b) it is more secure as more operations are done in user mode than in kernel mode, and
(c) a simpler kernel design and functionality typically results in a more reliable operating system.
User programs and system services interact in a microkernel architecture by using inter process
communication mechanisms such as messaging. These messages are conveyed by the operating
system. The primary disadvantage of the microkernel architecture are the overheads associated
with inter process communication and the frequent use of the operating system’s messaging
functions in order to enable the user process and the system service to interact with each other.

QUESTION:16

Consider the “exactly once” semantic with respect to the RPC mechanism. Does the algorithm
for implementing this semantic execute correctly even if the ACK message sent back to the
client is lost due to a network problem? Describe the sequence of messages, and discuss whether
“exactly once” is still preserved.

The "exactly once" semantic in the context of Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) ensures that a
requested operation is executed only once, regardless of network issues or retransmissions. To
achieve this, a robust protocol is often employed, typically involving acknowledgment (ACK)
messages and unique identifiers for requests.

Sequence of Messages for "Exactly Once" Semantic:

1. Client Sends Request:

o The client sends a request to the server, including a unique identifier (e.g., a nonce
or a request ID) to distinguish it from other requests.
2. Server Processes Request:
o The server processes the request and performs the operation.
3. Server Sends ACK:
o The server sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to the client, indicating
successful processing of the request.
4. Client Receives ACK:
o If the client receives the ACK, it concludes that the request was executed exactly
once.
5. Handling Loss of ACK:
o If the client does not receive the ACK due to a network issue, it will time out and
resend the original request with the same unique identifier.
6. Server Receives Duplicate Request:
o Upon receiving a duplicate request (with the same unique identifier), the server
checks whether it has already processed the request.
o If it has, the server responds with the original result of the operation without
executing it again. If it hasn't, it processes the request and sends back the result.

Discussion on Preservation of "Exactly Once":

 If the ACK is Lost:

 o The client does not receive the ACK and will resend the request after a timeout.
o The server’s handling of duplicate requests is critical. When it receives the
duplicate request, it checks the unique identifier and recognizes that it has already
processed it.
 Result:
o The server can either return the result of the original operation or indicate that it
has already processed the request. In both cases, the client is assured that the
operation was performed exactly once, even though the ACK was lost.

QUESTION:17

Describe the differences among short-term, medium-term, and long-term scheduling.

n operating systems, scheduling refers to the method used to allocate resources, particularly CPU
time, to processes. Scheduling can be categorized into three types: short-term, medium-term,
and long-term scheduling. Each type serves different purposes and operates at different
intervals. Here are the key differences among them:

1. Short-Term Scheduling:

 Definition: Also known as CPU scheduling, this involves deciding which of the ready
processes in memory should be executed next by the CPU.
 Frequency: It operates frequently, typically in milliseconds or microseconds, as it needs
to respond to process state changes quickly.
 Decision Criteria: Decisions are made based on criteria like priority, process type, or
specific scheduling algorithms (e.g., Round Robin, Shortest Job First).
 Responsibility: The short-term scheduler is responsible for switching between processes
that are in the ready state and managing CPU allocation.
 Impact: It directly affects the system's responsiveness and efficiency, as it determines
which process gets CPU time at any given moment.

2. Medium-Term Scheduling:
  Definition: This scheduling manages the swapping of processes in and out of memory,
effectively controlling the degree of multiprogramming.
 Frequency: It operates less frequently than short-term scheduling, typically in seconds or
minutes, as it deals with the loading and unloading of processes.
 Decision Criteria: Medium-term scheduling decisions are based on process states and
system load. It may involve deciding which processes should be temporarily suspended
(swapped out) and which should be brought back into memory (swapped in).
 Responsibility: The medium-term scheduler helps to ensure that the system can maintain
an optimal number of processes in memory, balancing load and performance.
 Impact: It affects the system's throughput and overall resource utilization by managing
the processes that are in the main memory.

3. Long-Term Scheduling:

 Definition: Also known as job scheduling, this involves deciding which processes are
admitted into the system for processing and which should be placed in the job queue.
 Frequency: It operates infrequently, often in minutes or hours, as it deals with the overall
admission of processes into the system.
 Decision Criteria: Long-term scheduling decisions are based on criteria like resource
requirements, process priority, and system load.
 Responsibility: The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming by
admitting processes into the system, determining which jobs should be loaded into
memory.
 Impact: It influences the overall performance and efficiency of the system by controlling
the mix of I/O-bound and CPU-bound processes.

QUESTION:18

7. Describe the actions taken by a kernel to context-switch between processes.

Actions taken by a kernel during a context switch between processes:

1. Save Current Process State:

  Save the current process's CPU registers and state (e.g., to its Process Control Block, or
PCB).

2. Update PCB:

 Update the PCB to reflect that the current process is no longer running (e.g., change its
state to "ready" or "waiting").

3. Select Next Process:

 Choose the next process to run based on the scheduling algorithm.

4. Load New Process State:

 Load the saved CPU registers and state of the next process from its PCB.

5. Update Memory Management:

 Update memory settings if the new process requires different memory resources.

6. Transfer Control:

 Switch control to the new process, allowing it to start running.

These steps enable efficient switching between processes, allowing multiple tasks to be managed
by the operating system seamlessly.

QUESTION:19

. Explain the role of the init process on UNIX and Linux systems in regard to process
termination.

The init process, known as PID 1, plays a crucial role in process management and termination on
UNIX and Linux systems. Here’s an overview of its responsibilities regarding process
termination:
Role of the init Process:

1. Parent of Orphaned Processes:

o When a process terminates, its child processes can become orphaned if their
parent process ends before them. The init process automatically adopts these
orphaned processes, ensuring they have a valid parent.
2. Reaping Zombie Processes:
o When a child process terminates, it becomes a "zombie" until its exit status is read
by its parent. If the parent process doesn’t do this, the zombie remains in the
process table. The init process periodically checks for zombies and can reap them
by reading their exit status, thus freeing up resources.
3. Managing System Shutdown:
o During system shutdown, the init process is responsible for terminating all
running processes in an orderly manner, ensuring that they are cleaned up
properly and that resources are released.
4. Maintaining System Stability:
o By adopting orphaned processes and reaping zombies, init helps maintain system
stability and prevents resource leaks, ensuring that the system runs smoothly.

QUESTION:20

What are two differences between user-level threads and kernel-level threads? Under what
circumstances is one type better than the other?

Differences:

1. Management:

Yser-Level Threads: Managed entirely by the user-level libraries. The operating system is
unaware of these threads, and all scheduling and management are handled in user space.

 Kernel-Level Threads: Managed by the operating system kernel. The OS is aware of all
threads and handles scheduling, synchronization, and context switching.
 2. Performance and Overhead:
 User-Level Threads: Typically have lower overhead since context switching is done in
user space, which can be faster as it avoids kernel mode transitions. However, if one user
thread blocks (e.g., on I/O), all threads in the same process may block.
 Kernel-Level Threads: While context switching can be more expensive due to the need to
enter kernel mode, they can take advantage of multiple processors, allowing true
concurrent execution and improved responsiveness.

When Each Type is Better:

User-Level Threads:

 Best for Applications with High Thread Management Needs: When an application
requires many lightweight threads and the overhead of kernel threads is undesirable (e.g.,
certain high-performance computing tasks or user interfaces).
 Lower Overhead: When performance and resource constraints make the overhead of
kernel management prohibitive.
 Kernel-Level Threads:
 Best for I/O-Bound Applications: When threads may block (e.g., during I/O operations),
kernel-level threads can ensure that other threads in the same process continue to run.
 Multi-core Systems: When the application can benefit from parallel execution on
multiple processors, kernel-level threads can be scheduled independently by the OS,
maximizing CPU utilization.