18 S. S.

Education Trust’s

S. G. BALEKUNDRI
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
[Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU),
Belagavi, Karnataka]

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

B.E – I/II Semester (2024-25)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY (CS Stream)
(As per Choice Based Credit System (CS &CSBS) scheme)

Prepared by Approved by

Prof. Suvarna Patil, Asst. Professor Dr. Ashok M. Hulagabali

Prof. Kaveri C, Asst. Professor HOD BSH
Prof A. D.Tigadi Asst. Professor
Prof. Veena Patil, Asst. Professor
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

INSTITUTION VISION
To impart quality Equation with Human Values and emerges as of one of the nation s leading
institution in the field of technical Equation and Research

INSTITUTION MISSION

 Strive to encourage ideas, talents and value systems.

 Guide students to be successful in the endeavor with moral and ethical values
 Build relation with industries and national laboratories to supports in the field of
engineering and technology
 Inculcate a thirst for knowledge in students and help them to achieve academic excellence
and placement
 Train and develop the faculty to achieve professional, organization excel in research and
development.

2|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

DECLARATION
We declare that the manual prepared for Engineering Physics lab is best up to our knowledge
which is prepared by considering the requirement to conduct the experiments given in the VTU
syllabus. The required theory is also mentioned in the manual to understand the experiment
thoroughly.

3|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

INDEX

SL NO EXPERIMENT PAGE NO

1 DIFFRATION 14

2 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 18

3 OPTICLE FIBER 23

SERIES AND PARALLEL

4 27
RESONANCE
5 FOUR PROBE METHOD 33

6 PHOTO DIODE 37

7 TRANSISTOR 42

8 MAGNETIC FILED 46

9 FERMI ENERGY 50

10 BLACK BOX 54

11 SPREAD SHEET
58

Pedagogical Initiatives for Effective Teaching

4|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Course Name with Code: Engg Physics Lab

Semester: I & II

Sl No Name of The Experiment Video Link

1 DIFFRATION https://youtu.be/6eSGXVuh2YI
2 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT https://youtu.be/9XVMH8MCHms
3 OPTICLE FIBER https://youtu.be/LONGS978DWA
4 SERIES AND PARALLEL https://youtu.be/1HY_FyKmMZY
RESONANCE
5 FOUR PROBE METHOD https://youtu.be/mJjpxsFENGs
6 PHOTO DIODE https://youtu.be/0KHrN4FLI3s
7 TRANSISTOR https://youtu.be/1HY_FyKmMZY

8 MAGNETIC FILED https://youtu.be/1P0KluuRnVA

9 FERMI ENERGY https://youtu.be/0KHrN4FLI3s
10 BLACK BOX https://youtu.be/TRQcf-WABAI
11 SPREAD SHEET https://youtu.be/3F_V5alJubk

5|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Discipline at Physics lab

Do’s:

 Bring Observation book & Record book regularly.

 Read theory of respective experiment in advance before coming to the Lab.
 Bring calculator, graph sheets and necessary materials to the practical class regularly.
 Handle the apparatus/equipments gently and carefully.
 Return the collected apparatus, components before leaving the lab.

Don’ts:

 Dump your bag on the worktable.

 Give your Observation book and Records to others.
 Forget to check your belongings before leaving the lab.
 Spoil the apparatus/equipment as it is meant for your benefit only.
 Switch on electronic equipment before getting the approval by the faculty/instructor.
 Don’t play with LASER light. It’s dangerous. Don’t Focus the LASER light to your Eye.

6|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY
Course Code 22PhyE12/12 CIE Marks
Teaching Hours/Week (L: T:P: S) SEE Marks
Credits Exam Hours
Course objectives:
1. Understand the measurement techniques and usage of instruments in physics.
2. Demonstrate competency and understanding of the basic concepts found in
experimental Physics.
3. Construct and analyze the electronic circuits.
4. Estimate the error in measurements and the ability to prepare a valid laboratory record.

List of Experiments: Any Ten Experiments to be performed

Sl. Experiments
NO
1 DIFFRATION
2 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

3 OPTICLE FIBER
4 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
5 FOUR PROBE METHOD
6 PHOTO DIODE
7 TRANSISTOR
8 MAGNETIC FILED
9 FERMI ENERGY
10 BLACK BOX
11 SPREAD SHEET

Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. Understand the measuring techniques
2. Operate different instruments and be capable to analyze the experimental results.
3. Construct the circuits and their analysis.

7|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

 Return the collected apparatus, components before leaving the lab.

CIE for the practical component of the Integrated Course

 On completion of every experiment/program in the laboratory, the students shall be
evaluated and marks shall be awarded on the same day. The15 marks are for conducting
the experiment and preparation of the laboratory record, the other 10 marks shall be for the
test conducted at the end of the semester.

 The CIE marks awarded in the case of the Practical component shall be based on the
continuous evaluation of the laboratory report. Each experiment report can be evaluated
for 10 marks. Marks of all experiments’ write-ups are added and scaled down to 15 marks.

 The laboratory test (duration 02/03 hours) at the end of the 14th /15th week of the
semester /after completion of all the experiments (whichever is early) shall be conducted
for 50 marks and scaled down to 10 marks. Scaled-down marks of write-up evaluations
and tests added will be CIE marks for the laboratory component of IPCC for 25 marks

PREREQUISITES
Students must have the knowledge of Hooks law, module of elasticity. Also about the
magnetic field in the coil due to current. Students must also have the knowledge of diodes,
semiconductors, properties of Laser light, about dielectric material and their properties.

8|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Students must have the knowledge of SI units of the physical quantities and also
conversion of units as from CGS to SI units, MKS to SI units etc.

SOP
In case of electrical experiments while making the connections, nubs of all the apparatus
must be kept in minimum position. They should have the knowledge of reading analog and digital
meters.

Rheostat must be kept in minimum position and digital multimeter should be kept in off
position.

Course Objectives

This Course will enable students

 To realize experimentally, the mechanical, electrical and thermal properties of materials,
concepts of waves and oscillations.

9|Page
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

 Design simple circuits and hence study the characteristics of semiconductor devices

10 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
 Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II
S. S. Education Trust’sCET Code: E-175 (UG)/T-942 (PG)

S. G. BALEKUNDRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Shivabasavanagar, Belagavi- 590 010, Karnataka- India
Office: 0831-2407172, 2554559 Fax: 0831-2407152Website: www.sgbit.edu.in
Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities Five UG branches
(CV, ME, EEE, ECE& CSE)
An ISO 21001:2018 Email: [email protected], Extn: 531
certified institution Factly;Prop;Suvarna patil are accredited by NBA

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT SHEET

Name of Student: ______________________ Semester = --------------

USN/Roll No: _________________ Lab Name : PHYSICS

Branch: __________________ Maximum Average Marks = 25

Attenda Conduct Viva Total

Name of the Record Staff
Sl. No Date nce ion Marks Marks
Experiment (02) Sign
(02) (04) (02) (10)
1 DIFFRATION

2 DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT
3 OPTICLE FIBER
4 SERIES & PARALLEL
RESONANCE
5 FOUR PROBE
METHD
6 PHOTO DIODE
7 TRANSISTOR
8 MAGNETIC FILED

9 FERMI ENERGY

10 BLACK BOX
11 SPRAED SHEET
Total
Marks(100)

(A) Scaled to (15)

(B) Lab IA Marks

(10)

Final Marks
(A+B)

11 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
 Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

LAB COORDINATOR HOD

Assessment Rubrics for 21PHYL16/26 –Engineering Physics Laboratory

Performance Exceeds expectation Meets expectation Does not meet

expectation

1. Attendance(02) All the experiments Only 50% of the Less than 50% of the
attended (2) experiments are experiments are
attended (1). attended (0)

2. Conduction(8) Follows the correct With the help of other Not able to take the
procedure and get the students get the readings (1)
correct readings readings (2)
individually(4)
3. Record (02) Journal is written Journal is written Journal not written
properly and submitted properly and late properly and submitted
in time(2) submitted in time(1) late(0)
4. Viva(03) Answered all questions Answered only 50% of Answered less than
asked(2) the questions asked(1) 50% of the questions
asked(0).

12 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Reference books.

1. Engineering Lab Manual by WBUT-New Age International Publishers.

2. Applied Physics Lab Manual by Anoop Sing Yadav.

Web links, Video lectures, and e-resources.

https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282&sim=1512&cnt=1https://vlab.amr
ita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282&sim=879&cnt=1https://vlab.amrita.edu/
index.php?sub=1&brch=189&sim=343&cnt=1https://bop-
iitk.vlabs.ac.in/basics-of-physics/List%20of
%20experiments.htmlhttps://virtuallabs.merlot.org/
vl_physics.htmlhttps://phet.colorado.eduhttps://www.myphysicslab.com

13 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

DIFFRACTION

Diagram:

14 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

LEFT

RIGHT

Diffraction Pattern

Formula
nλ = d sinθ

λ = (d sinθ)/n = …………….A0

15 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: Measurement of wavelength of laser source using diffraction grating.

Apparatus: Diffraction grating, Laser-light, Screen, etc.

Principle: The deviation of a light ray from its rectilinear path, when it passes across objects
whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of light is called diffraction. The wavelength
of the light ray diffracted from the grating is given by the equation m λ = dsinθ, where m, λ , d,
and θ are order of diffraction, wavelength of light, grating constant and angle of diffraction
respectively. Diffraction is of two types 1) Fresnel’s Diffraction 2) Fraunhofer’s Diffraction.

Grating: A diffraction grating is an optically plane glass plate on which number of

equidistant parallel slits are drawn using a pointer diamond. The region where the
lines are drawn becomes opaque to the light, while the space between two lines is
transparent.

Procedure:
1. Mount the diode laser on the laser holder.
2. Graph paper is fixed on the screen and the laser is focused on the grating and the
diffraction pattern is obtained on the graph sheet.
3. Determine the distance ‘D’ between grating element and the screen.
4. Mark the central maximum , I order diffraction and II order diffraction on the graph sheet
and measure the distance X1 and X2
5. Find the values of θ 1 and θ 2 and determine the values of λ1 and λ2 then find λ which is
the wavelength of given laser .

16 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
 Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Record of Observation: Grating constant, d = 1/N = 1/5906 = ……………………cm

Tabulation

Tria Distance Angle of Wavelength of laser

l no. Between
Tan θ = X diffraction λ = (d sinθ) =…... cm
Grating Order of diffraction
and D θ n
screen
‘D’ in IInd IInd λ 1= dsinθ1 λ 2= dsinθ2 Mean
cm Ist order IInd order Ist order Ist order
order order 1 2 (λ)
X1 = X2 =
( X a+ X b) ( X c + X d) Tan θ1 Tan θ2 θ1= Tan-1 θ2
2 2 ( X 1) ( X 2) (X1/D) =Tan-1
= =
D D (X2/D)

cm cm
1 7

2 8

Mean λ (1,2) =……cm

Calculation:

Result: The wavelength of given laser light is =…………….Ao

17 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

18 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Circuit Diagram:

5V

Nature of graph:

Formula:
Dielectric constant is determined using,

K= 1.44 Tp d x10-6 ( A=L x B )

ε0AR

19 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To determines dielectric constant by using charging and discharging circuit.

Apparatus: RC charging discharging Experimental setup consisting of digital stop clock 0.1
sec resolution, digital dc voltmeter 0-20V set of resistors and set of capacitors of known
dimensions. DC power supply 5V.

Formula: K= 1.44 Tp d x10-6 Where ε0 is the permittivity =8.85x10-12 Fm-1.

ε0AR A is the area of the plate= L x B

Theory: A parallel plate condenser is formed by keeping two metallic plates parallel to each
other. By applying a potential across the two plates an electric field is produced inside the space
between the two plates. By placing an electrically insulated material within the plates the
capacitance can be increased. The resulting capacitance of the parallel plate condenser is given by
C=Kϵ0 A …………………………………(1)
d
Where,
C is the capacitance in Farad.
K is dielectric constant
ε0 is the permittivity 8.85x10-12 Fm-1.
A is the area of the plate
d is the distance between the plates or thickness of the dielectric material.
A capacitor can be charged using a resistor and a DC source. The capacitor will charge
exponentially. The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor during charging is given by
VCharge = V0 (1-e-t/RC) …………………………….(2)
The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor during discharge is given by
V Vdiscagrge
= Vo (e-t/RC)………………………………(3)
Where
R is resistance in ohms
C is capacitance in Farad
t is the instantaneous time in second
Vo is the maximum voltage to which capacitor is charged
The charge-discharge curve intersects at a point T p. At this instant of time Tp the voltage across
the condenser is the same during charge and discharge process. Therefore, we have
VCharge = Vdiscagrge
By physically measuring the dimensions of the capacitor dielectric constant can be determined.
The capacitor dimensions are mentioned in mm
K= 1.44 Tp d x10-6 …………………………………(4)
ε0AR
A is anode foil area in mm2 (A= L x B)
d is the separation between the foils or the thickness of the paper in mm
R is the resistance Ohms
TP is in seconds
ϵ0 = 8.85x10-12 Fm-1

20 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Procedure:
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in Figure. R selected as 100KΩ and
Capacitor C is selected and connected to the circuit using patch cords.

2. The digital stop clock is reset by pressing reset button. The display indicates 00.0.

3. Switch S1 (Charge-discharge) is thrown to the charge position.

4. Switch S2 (Halt-Start) is thrown to the start position watching the digital stop clock
and the voltmeter.

5. Without stopping the clock for every 5s and the voltmeter reading is noted. The
capacitor is charged for 5s and voltage across the capacitor is after 5s is noted from
the voltmeter in tabular column.

6. Trial is repeated until the capacitor is charged to maximum steady voltage ≅ 4.5
Volts. In each case the capacitor voltage is noted at an interval of 5 seconds and noted
in tabular column.

7. When the capacitor is charged to maximum voltage (4.5V and above), the charging is
Stopped and the charge discharge switch is thrown to discharge position and clock is
reset.

8. The voltage across the discharging capacitor is noted after 5 seconds interval by
stopping clock after five seconds. This is done until the capacitor is discharged fully.

9. The graph of voltage verses time is plotted. The charging and discharging curves
intersect at a point Tp , where the voltage across the capacitor during charging and
discharging remains the same. The time Tp at which the voltage across the capacitor
during charging and discharging remains the same is noted.

10. Dielectric constant is determined using,

K= 1.44 Tp d x10-6
ε0AR

21 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Record of Observation:

1. Resistance R= 100KΩ
2. Capacitance C= 108µF
3. Physical dimensions of capacitor
Length (L) = 47mm
Breadth (B) =5mm
Separation (d) = 0.075mm
A=LxB
Tabular column:

S L No. Time in sec Voltage in Volt

Charging Discharging
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
5 20
6 25
7 30
8 35
9 40
10 45
11 50
12 55
13 60
14 65
15 70

Result:

1. Time Period Tp=

2. Dielectric constant is determined using,

K= 1.44 Tp d x10-6
ε0AR

22 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

OPTICAL FIBER

23 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Formula:
i) The Acceptance angle,

θ0 = tan−1 ( 2DL )
Where, D – the diameter of the bright circle formed on screen,

L – the distance between the optical fiber end and screen.

ii) Numerical Aperture,

NA =sin θ0

2L

OPPOSITE
tanθ o = θo D
ADJECENT

D
tanθ o=
2L

D
θ o = tan-1[ ]
2L

24 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

Apparatus: Laser source, Optical fiber, Screen, Scale.

Principle: The Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the numerical
aperture of the fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle spread by the light
signal at the emerging end of the optical fiber. Therefore, by measuring the diameter of the light
spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end to the screen, we can measure the
acceptance angle and there by the numerical aperture of the fibe

Procedure:
 Switch on the laser source and adjust the distance between output end of the optical fiber
and the screen ‘L’ (say 2 cm).
 m the tabular column and hence the Numerical aperture.

Note:
 The values shown here are for the setup used for testing purpose. There may be slight
variation with the readings.
 The source of error in this experiment is, marking of the dark circle. The diameter
markings should be done only on the dark circle, not for the outer circle. Refer the
diagram given above for correct markings. Error in this part would be more as it depends
on the eye sensitivity of the observer also.
 Avoid staring at the light spot for longer times, as it will strain the eye quickly.
 Do not view the laser light directly from source as it may damage eye permanently
 Do not bend the fiber with sharp bending curvatures as it may damage the fiber
permanently.
 Do not touch the fiber end points with bare hands as it may contaminate the fiber open end
surface and it may degrade the output quality.

25 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Tabular column:
Trai L Horizontal Vertical Mean D/2L Acceptance Numerical
l No. diameter diameter Diameter angle aperture
in cm in cm
D1(CD) D2(AB) D θ0 =tan−1 ( 2DL ) NA

in cm in cm in cm NA=sin θ0

Mean

Result: The Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber are found to
be

26 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

SERIES & PARALLEL RESONANCE

Series & Parallel Resonance

27 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Circuit Diagram

Nature Graph

VMAX

VMin

Formulae with Units:

1
1. Inductance = L= 2 2 Hz C = 0.2 µF
4ΠCf r
2. Quality factor Q = (2∏ fr L ) / R R = 1 KΩ

3. Band width BW = f2-f1 = ---------Hz

Aim: Determination of inductance, quality factor and band width of LCR circuit..

28 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Apparatus: Signal generator, Volt meter, Inductance, Resistor and capacitor.

Theory: Every physical substance when set to vibrate freely , it vibrates with its own frequency
called natural frequency . When external vibrations are applied on such substances and when the
frequency of external vibrations becomes equal to the natural frequency then the substance
vibrates with maximum amplitude and as a result maximum energy will be dissipated . This
phenomenon is called resonance.

The same phenomenon is also evident in electrical circuits containing the energy storing devices
like inductor and capacitor. When an inductor and capacitor are connected in series across an
alternating power supply with changing frequency , the resonance our. At particular value of the
frequency of AC , the inductive reactance (XL) becomes equal to capacitive reactance (XC), and
the impedance of LCR circuit becomes minimum. As a result the voltage across the circuit
becomes maximum. Now the circuit is said to be in resonance and the corresponding frequency of
AC is called resonance frequency .

Thus at resonance state XL = XC Since XL = 2∏ fr L and XC = 1 / 2∏ frC

Therefore 2∏ fr L = 1 / 2∏ frC
f2r = 1/ 4∏2 LC
1
fr =
2∏ √ LC
Where fr is called resonance frequency.

Under resonance condition the voltages across the inductance or capacitor is found to be several
times greater than the applied voltage. This phenomenon is called ‘Q’ rise of the voltage. The
quality factor ‘q’ is also defined as the ratio of inductive reactance to the resistance of the circuit
at resonance.

Q =ω0L/R
i.e. Q = 2∏ fr L
L is inductance and R is resistance.

Procedure

29 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Series Resonance:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram (fig 1), with suitable values of L, C & R.
2. Switch on the power supply and set the amplitude to maximum.

3. Increase the frequency from 100 Hz to 1500 Hz (in suitable steps) and note down the
corresponding readings of the voltage in the voltmeter.
4. During this variation of frequency, the frequency fr for which current reaches its
maximum value (VMAX), called the resonance frequency, must be measured with
maximum accuracy.
5. A graph of frequency taken along the X-axis against the current along Y-axis is plotted
and f and Imax are marked.

Parallel Resonance:
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram (fig 2), with suitable values of L, C & R

1. The output of the oscillator is adjusted suitably and is kept constant throughout the
experiment.
2. Switch on the power supply and set the amplitude to maximum.

3. Increase the frequency from 100 Hz to 1500 Hz (in suitable steps) and note down the
corresponding readings of the voltage in the multimeter.
4. Plot a graph of current Vs frequency. You will get the curve as shown in figure 4.

5. Note down the frequency corresponding to minimum voltage (VMIN ), it is called

Resonance frequency (fr ).

30 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Tabular Column :

Series LCR circuit Parallel LCR circuit

Frequency Voltage Frequency Voltage

Hz V Hz V

31 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Result:
Inductance Q = 2∏ fr L Band Width
Types of resonance L (H) R BW (Hz)

Series

Parallel

32 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

FOUR PROBE METHOD

Circuit Diagram

33 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Nature of Graph

Formula; Eg =2*Kb*slope=--------- J

Eg =-----------eV

Aim; To determine the resistivity specimen by using four probe method.

34 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Apparatus; Four probe arrangement semiconductor specimen, oven, constant current source
thermometer, etc.

Theory; resistance (R) of a conductor is defined as the opposition offered by the conductor to
the flow of electrical current through. The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on its
length (1) and the area of cross section (A) i.e. R therefore; [R=pl/A] where p is
proportionality constant called the resistivity of the conductor .
Resistivity is a property of the material and given the measure of the opposition offered
by the material during a current flow in it is property which change for material to
material. Resistivity arises due to the scattering of electron by the lattice vibration (phonons)
and the Presence of impurities and lattice imperfection. there resistivity are called ideal
resistivity are called resistivity and respectively Resistivity of a material varies with
temperature. In case of a material the resistivity increases with respect to the temperature.
While in case same conductor the resistivity decreases with in case in it temperature. While in
case same conductor resistivity decreases with in case a temperature. In same conductor..
In same conductor low temperature all electron are bound the respective atom and bounded
to their respective and there free electron conductor.
Thus as low temperature same conductor behave as . As a result respective of the same
conductor increases covalent get broken number of free electron increases result resistivity of
the semiconductor and conductivity increases.
The mathematical form the resistivity variation temperature intrinsic same conductor of given
Equation ,{ρ1=A EXP (Eg/2kt)}
Where Eg is n gap k is Boltzmann constant T is absolute temperature A is constant. Both side
{inp1=Eg/2kt=inA}

The above equation represent equation straligh line y=mx+c

The slop of graph inp 1 /T ts Eg/2k
Thus energy gap semiconductor is given by slope semiconductor given by
Slop=Eg/2k
There energy Eg=slope 2*k
For germanium Eg=0.77eV and for sllicon Eg=1.2e

Procedure;

1. Connect plug four probe method set up constant power supply sockets. Big plug big
socket small in small
2. Switch on the ac main constant current supply adjust current at desired value (8MA) not
the corresponding mv reading mill voltmeter
3. Place the four probe method arrangement in the over and thermometer given hole top.
4. Plug oven Ac main. Switch the supply by rotating het control switch clock wise direction
LED will indicate on position vary the knobs slowly for increase temp up to 120 C.
5. Let the oven heat the reading mill voltmeter thermometer suitable temp ranges.

Record observation;

35 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

1. Distance between the probes(S)=------------mm

2. Thickness of the crystal(w)= ------------mm
3. Current(I)------------mA (constant)
4. Correction factor f(w/s) = -------------

Tabulation;
Si no Temp Volt ρ0 = (V/I)2ΠS ρ= ρ0/f(w/s) In ρ 1/T
T V
Ohm-cm Per K

C K

10

Calculation; Eg=2*KB*slope

= ------------------ J
= Ef = ( /1.6X10-19 ) = ……………..eV

Result ; Energy gap of Semiconductor is = ---------eV

36 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE

37 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Circuit Diagram:

Nature of Graph:

Part A:

C
I (mA)
B

PART B:

IPD in mA

Formula: Responsivity, R= Slope A/W

0.66

38 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To draw photodiode characteristics and calculate power Responsivity

.
Apparatus: Photodiode experimental setup consisting of: 0-3V regulated power supply, 0-2mA
digital dc current meter, 0-20V digital dc volt meter, white light LED module, and photo diode
LED type. A transistor drive for LED is used.

Theory: Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that respond to high-energy particles and
photons. Radiation-sensitive junction is formed in a semiconductor material whose resistivity
changes when illuminated by light photons. The junction can be made to respond to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.
Three major types of photodiodes are available in the market:
(i) PN junction photo diode,
(ii) PIN junction photo diode,
(iii) Avalanche photo diode (APD).
PN junction photodiodes comprise a two-electrode, radiation-sensitive PN junction formed in a
semiconductor material in which the reverse current varies with the amount of illumination. PIN
junction photodiodes are diodes with a large intrinsic region sandwiched between p-doped and n -
doped semiconducting regions.
Optical Characteristics
Responsivity (Rλ) :The degree of response of a silicon photodiode to light is a measure of its
sensitivity, and it is defined as the ratio of the photocurrent IPD to the incident light power P at a
given wavelength Rλ=IPD
P
Where IPD is photo diode current and
P is the light input power.
Responsivity is a measure of the effectiveness of the conversion of the light power into electrical
current. It varies with the wavelength of the incident light as well as applied reverse bias and
tempe

39 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Tabular Column;
Part A: Determination of Responsivity:
Each time set VPD= 1V
PLED(mW) IPD(mA)

Part B: Determination of I-V Characteristics of Photo Diode

VPD(V) PLED =10mW PLED =20mW PLED =30mW

IPD(mA) IPD(mA) IPD(mA)

40 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

I-V Characteristics:
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of a photodiode is a set of curves relating the voltage
across the junction to the current flowing through it. When the photodiode is forward biased, there
is an exponential increase in the current similar to rectifier diode. When a reverse bias is applied,
a small reverse saturation current appears.
Part-A: Determination of Responsivity
The white light LED and PD are placed face-to-face 10cm apart (This is the industry standard for
any LED measurements). 5V power supply and transistor drives are provided for the LED .By
varying the pot in the emitter circuit the LED current is varied. A dial is provided for the
potentiometer which directly reads the LED input power (PLED= VLED x ILED).
1 The LED (white light) and PD are placed face to face and the light arrangement is
switchedon. LED power is set to 10mW by turning the knob to its minimum position. After
ensuring that the LED is glowing and while noting the PD current in the meter, the cover is
placed so that any external light will not affect the readings. Positive terminal of the PD (p)
is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply and negative of the PD is
connected to positive terminal of the power supply. This reverse biases the photo diode.
2. The voltage across PD is set to -1V by varying 0-3V power supply. The IPD is noted
3. The LED power is increased to 11mW and VPD is again set to -1V and the corresponding IPD
is noted.
4. The trial is repeated by varying the input power to 12mW, 13mW etc. reaching up to 50mW.
In each case VPD is set to -1V and IPD is noted.
5. A graph showing the variation of LED power(P LED) on X-axis and IPD on Y axis is drawn .A
straight line graph is obtained, slope of which gives the value of Responsivity.
The external conversion efficiency of white LED is 0.66, hence by dividing Responsivity
by 0.66 gives the exact Responsivity of the PD.
Part-B: Determination of I-V Characteristics of PD
In this part of the experiment PD current and voltage are recorded for different LED input powers.
1. The LED power is set to 10mW on the dial and V PD is set to -0.10V and the corresponding IPD
is noted.
2. The trial is repeated by increasing V PD in suitable steps up to a maximum of -2V. The
corresponding IPD values are noted.
3. The experiment is repeated by increasing the LED power to 20, 30, 40 and 50mW in steps. In
each case variation in VPD and corresponding IPD are noted.
4. A graph is drawn taking VPD along X-axis and IPD along Y-axis. The equal spacing between
characteristic curves indicates linearity of photo current with light intensity.

Result: 1.The Responsivity of given photodiode is = ___________ A/W.

41 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

2. I-V characteristics of given photodiode is verified.

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Circuit diagram:

42 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

VBE = Base emitter voltage , VCE = Collector emitter voltage

B = Base, C = collector, E = emitter, IB = Base current, and IC = Collector current.

Nature of Graph:

IB2= 100µA

IB1= 50µA

Formula: Input:
1. Input Resistance Ri = 1 / slope ………..Ω
Slope = ∆ I B / ∆ V B

Output:

2. Amplification factor (β) = ( IC2 – IC1) / ( IB2 – IB1)

3. α = β / (1+ β)

43 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To draw the input and output characteristics of the given NPN transistor, and hence to
determine its α and β.

Appararatus: Given transistor → SL 100, variable DC power supplies in the ranges 0 to 5V

and 0 to 20V , DC-micro ammeter (0 to 1000 µA), DC millimeter (0 to 100 mA) , digital
voltmeter * (DVM) , circuit unit with a base resister of 5.1 kΩ , and patch cords.

*or any voltmeter with high input resistance (>1MΩ)

Procedure: The circuit for studying the transistor characteristics for an NPN transistor is as
shown Fig.1. Identify the base, the collector and the emitter leads of the given NPN transistor (SL
100) and then insert it into the relemate connector (i.e., the transistor socket),in the circuit.
Through the relemate connector , the emitter, the base and the collector get connected to the
points E,B and C respectively . The biasing voltages V BB & VCC Are applied to the circuit by
connecting P to A and Q to D , in the input side , and by connecting T to F and S to G on the
output side . The micro ammeter (µA) is connected between U and V, and the millimeters is
connected between M and N.

Input Characteristics Study

Sub Procedure: All the power supply knobs are turned to the minimum position, and all the
power supply points are switched on . The voltmeter (DVM) iis connected between K and L. The
collector emitter voltage V CE is set to 2 volt , by varying V CC . The voltmeter is disconnected and
then connected between H and J , The base emitter voltage V BE is increased from zero volt , in
steps of 0.1V upto 0.6V , and then in steps of 0.05V upto a maximum of 0.75V, and the
corresponding values of the base current IB are noted from the micrometers(µA), and entered in
Tabular column I .

Evaluation Of The Constants: The reading are plotted, with VBE along X –axis, IB along
Y-axis (Fig.2.) . The portion of the curve which could be approximated to a straight line, is
extrapolated downward to meet X-axis at k and the values of V BE at K , known as the knee
voltage VT is noted.

Output Characteristics Study

Sub Procedure: IB is set to 50µA by varying V BB . The voltmeter is connected between K and
L . VCE is varied (a) in steps of 0.05V , starting from zero volt, up to 0.3V and (b) in steps of 2V
up to a maximum value of 12V , by varying VCC .The corresponding reading of collector current IC
are recorded from the milliammeter in each step and entered under Trial-1 of Tab column II

The same is repeated by setting IB = 100µA for Trial – II to begin with.

And the corresponding tabular column .

44 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
 Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Evaluation Of The Constants: The readings under all the 3 trials are plotted in the same graph,
with VC along X – axis, and IC along Y –axis .The values of IC at points IC1 & IC2

At which IC becomes essentially independent of V CE for the 2 curves are noted. The current gain
β in general is given by, β = [∆ I C / ∆ IB] . β is evaluated for different combinations of curves ,
{ For examples , for the lower curve pair β = [I C2 - IC1] / [IB2 – IB1] }, and the average value of β is
found out . The value of α is calculated by using the equation,

α = β / ( 1 + β).

Observation:
Input Characteristics: Output characteristics

Dependence of IB on VBE for constant VCE Dependence of IC on VCE For

Tabular column I Tabular column II

VBE VCE =2V VCE Trial 1 Trial 2
(volts) IB (µA) (volts) IB1 =50 µA IB2 =100µA
0.00 Ic (m A)
Ic (m A)
0.10
0.20 0.00
0.30 0.1
0.40
0.2
0.50
0.55 0.3
0.60 0.4
0.65
0.5
0.70
0.75 1.0
0.80

Calculation:

Result: For the given transistor,

1. The input resistance, Ri = …………….. Ω
2. The value of β =
3. The value of α =

45 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC FIELD

46 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Circuit Diagram:
C1= Search coil

C2= Field coil/Circular coil

2-12 V AC Power Supply

Nature Of Graph:

Formula: Magnetic field,

Brms= Vrms = -------------- (Gauss)
π fAnµr
Where,
Vrms= root mean square voltage

A = area of cross section (breadth x thickness)

f = frequency of AC

n = number of turns in coil (search coil)

µr = relative permeability
47 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To determine the magnetic field intensity at the center of a circular coil carrying current
(by deflection method) as well as along the axis of the coil.

Apparatus: Digital gauss meter, AC power supply 2-12V, circular coil, search coil, pointer,
scale, connecting wires.

Theory:
Balfour Stewart and William Winston Haldane Gee designed an instrument to study the variation
of magnetic Field along the axis of a circular coil. It consists of a coil with specified number turns
of copper wire and a compass that can be moved along the axis of the coil. This simple apparatus
is still in use in most physics labs. The problem with this apparatus is, however, poor quality of
the magnetic compass used in it.

Hence, the magnetic field calculated using the deflection of the compass needle is not accurate.

Observations:
Vrms= root mean square voltage =1V
A = area of cross section = (bxt) X 10-4 m
f = frequency of AC = 50Hz
n = number of turns in search coil = 2750
µr = relative permeability = 1.78
(1 Gauss = 10-4 T)

Tabular Column:
Sl No. DISTANCE MAGNETIC FIELD
(D) cm (B) Gauss

Magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying coil:

48 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

A stationary electric charge produces an electric field whereas a moving electric charge produces
magnetic field around it. This is the basic principle of electro-magnetic induction.

The magnetic field can be determined by measuring the induced emf in the search coil. The
magnetic

field is given by Brms = Vrms ( gauss)

π fAnµr
Using this equation one can calculate the magnetic field at the center of the coil as well as along
its axis on either side.
For a given set of search coils, the parameters n, A, f, μr are constants, hence the magnetic field is
proportional to the induced emf. In the present work, instead of using a magnetic compass we
have used a search coil. Hence AC power supply is used to energize the coil. A rectangular iron
rod, with dimensions 1.65 cm x 1.65 cm, which acts as the axis of the coil is provided with the
set-up. The search coil is fixed in this rectangular bar which acts like a core for the search coil. A
pointer fitted on the search coil is used to read the distance from the center of the coil.

Procedure:
1.Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2.Move the search coil to the left end of the scale.
3.Move the search coil from left to right in the steps of 2cm and record the corresponding
magnetic field from digital guass meter.
4.Plot the graph of magnetic field (B) in gauss v/s distance(D) in cm.
5. Radius of the outer coil can be measured from the graph.
6. The magnetic field can be calculated by substituting all the values in given formula.

Result:
The magnetic field intensity at the center of a circular coil carrying current, B = ______ Gauss

Variation of magnetic field intensity along the axis of the coil is verified from the graph

49 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY

50 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Circuit diagram:

+ -
V A
+ -

+ -

source

Nature of Graph:

Formula with unit:

Fermi Energy, Ef = C (T/R)2 (Slope)2 Joules

Where slope =∆R / ∆T and C is constant.

C = 0.7216 x 10-18 J

51 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of copper material.

Apparatus: DC regulated Power supply, Digital ammeter, digital Voltmeter, Heating bath,
Thermometer and copper coil.

Theory: The Fermi level is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electronic
energy levels at absolute temperature. In metals the Fermi energy gives information about the
velocities of the electrons which participate in ordinary electrical conduction.
Let the number of free electrons in metal per unit volume is given by
n = Nρ / M ………………………(1)
Where N is an Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x1026 /m3,  is the density of the metal
and M is the mass number of the metal
The electrical conductivity of the metal is
σ = L / Ra……………(2)
Where L is length and ‘a’ is cross section area of the metal wire and R is resistance
at a given a temperature.
The relaxation time is given by
 = σm/ne2 ……………………………(3)
where ‘e’ is the electronic charge (1.602x10 C) and m is electron mass (9.1x10-31 Kg)
-19

if VF is Fermi velocity , then mean free path of electrons

Now Fermi energy ,
Ef = ( ne∏Ar2/ L√2m )2 (∆R / ∆T)2 ……………..(5)

Procedure:
1. The copper wire is wound over an insulating tube to form a coil. The tube
which contains the copper coil & thermometer is immersed into the water
bath as shown in experimental setup.
2. Heat the water with immersion electric heater and allow the temperature to
reach up to 90 oC. Remove the hater from the water bath.
3. The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
4. Record the resistance value for every fall in 5 oC of temperature until it reaches to 45 oC.
5. A graph is drawn taking temperature in Kelvin along X-axis and resistance
along Y-axis. The slope of straight line is calculated.
6. The Fermi energy of copper is calculated using given formula.

Where the constant A = λFT,

i.e A = VF •  • T …………………(6)
Substituting eq 2 & 3 in eq 6 we get
A = Vf (L /Ra)(m/ne2)T = ( Vf Lm/ane2) (T/R) = C2(T/R)
Now the eq (5) reduces to
Ef = ( ne2∏r2/ L√2m )2 X A2 X (∆R / ∆T)2
= C1 [C2 (T/R) ]2 (∆R / ∆T)2 = C1C22 (T/R)2 (∆R / ∆T)2 wherec1 =( ne2∏r2/
2
L√2m )
= C(T/R)2 (∆R / ∆T)2
where C =C1C22 = 0.7216 X 10-18 J

52 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Tabulation:
SL No Temperature Voltages Current Resistance
mV mA Ω
o
1 C K
2 80
3 75
4 70
5 65
6 60
7 55
8 50
9 45

Calculation for Fermi Energy of Copper

Reference temperature t = 45oC, T= 318 K

Resistance R at T (45oC) = ………………Ώ

Fermi Energy, Ef = C (T/R)2 (Slope)2 Joules

Ef = 0.7216 x 10-18 x ( / )2 ( )2

Ef = ………………...joules

Ef = ( /1.6X10-19 ) = ……………..eV

Result: The Fermi Energy of copper is EF = …………………………eV

53 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Black Box Experiment

Circuit diagram:

54 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Formula with units:

L=XL/2Πf0

C=1/Xc2Πf0

R= =-------Ω (From graph)

Aim; Identification unknown components such as resister, capacitor inductor and determine
value of inductor and capacitor

55 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Apparatus; signal generator, AC volt meter unknown components.

Theory;
Electronic circuits consists of interconnection of component are classified into two categories
active passive element never supply more energy then they absorb active elements modify
energy passive components include resistors, capacitors, inductor. components considered
include batteries and generator.
Passive components cannot include net energy in to the circuit. the also cannot rely on a source
of power except for what is available form the(Ac)circuit they are connect to. as a consequence
they cannot amplify a; though they may increase voltage of currenr (such as done by transformer
or in resonance circuit). Passive components include two terminal components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors.

Procedure:
1 Connect the circuit and as show in diagram
1. Not down corresponding voltage and current by varying frequency in step of 100hz for all
components.
2. Find the impedance of all components.
3. If z is directly proportion of f, given components is inductor. By using formula find its value.
4. If z is nearly proportion to f given components is capacitors by using formula find its value.
5. If z is independent of f, given components is Resister.

Tabulation:

56 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Frequency(Hz) Component A Component B Component C

Volt I Z= V/I Volt I Z= V/I Volt I Z= V/I

(V) (mA) (Ω) (V) (mA) (Ω) (V) (mA) (Ω)

Calculations

Result;

Component A is---------------and its value =

Component B is---------------and its value =

Component C is---------------and its value =

57 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

SPREAD SHEETS

Aim: Data analysis and plotting histogram using excel spread sheet

Data analysis is a technique that typically involves multiple activities such as gathering, cleaning,
and organizing the data. These processes, which usually include data analysis software, are
necessary to prepare the data for business purposes. Data analysis is also known as data analytics,

58 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

described as the science of analyzing raw data to draw informed conclusions based on the data.

Data analysis methods and techniques are useful for finding insights in data, such as metrics,
facts, and figures. The two primary methods for data analysis are qualitative data analysis
techniques and quantitative data analysis techniques. These data analysis techniques can be used
independently or in combination with the other to help business leaders and decision-makers
acquire business insights from different data types.

Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative data analysis involves working with numerical variables — including statistics,
percentages, calculations, measurements, and other data — as the nature of quantitative data is
numerical. Quantitative data analysis techniques typically include working with algorithms,
mathematical analysis tools, and software to manipulate data and uncover insights that reveal the
business value.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data describes information that is typically nonnumerical. The qualitative data analysis
approach involves working with unique identifiers, such as labels and properties, and categorical
variables, such as statistics, percentages, and measurements. A data analyst may use firsthand or
participant observation approaches, conduct interviews, run focus groups, or review documents
and artifacts in qualitative data analysis.

59 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Lab Viva Questions

60 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

Diffraction Grating

1. What Do You Mean By Diffraction?

2. Give example of diffraction.
3. What is LASER?
4.. What is the SI unit of wavelength?
5. What is the principle of LASER?

Dielectric constant

1. What is is capacitor
2. What is Dielectric
3. What is Electric filed
4. Name the SI unit
5. What is Dielectric Constant?

Optical Fiber

1, What do you mean by optical fiber?

2, State some uses of optical fiber.
3, What is an acceptance angle?
4, Define LED.
5, State some advantages of LED

Series And Parallel Resonance

1. What Is Quality factor?
2. What do you mean by? Resonant Frequency?
3. What is inductive reactance?
4. What is capacitive reactance?
5. What condition of resonance?

Four Probe Method

1. Define a semiconductor.
2. Define energy gap. Is it temperature dependent?
3. What do you mean by conduction band and valence band?
4. Does semiconductor obey Ohm’s law?

Photo Diode

61 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT
Engineering Physics Lab Manual Semester I/II

1. What is Photo Diode?

2. Define Power Responsively?
3. How is photo diode connected in the circuit?
4. What is dark current?

Characteristics of transistor

1. What is transistor
2. What are the application of transistor
3. How many type of transistor
4. Name the terminals transistor
5. What is the application of transistor

Measurement of Magnetic Field

1 What Is Magnetic Field?

2. How does Magnetic field varies along the axis of current carrying circular coil?
3 What Is Root Mean Square Voltage?
4 State Basic Principle of Electro Magnetic Induction.
5. What Is SI unit of Magnetic Field

Fermi Energy
1. What Is Fermi Energy?
2. What is the SI unit of Fermi energy?
3. What Is Fermi Factor?
4. What is Fermi velocity?
5. Define on electron volt

Black Box

1. Define Black box

2. What is signal generator?
3. Define passive component?
4. Define passive?

62 | P a g e
PHYSICS DEPT. SGBIT