COMPARE SOME LOCAL AND FOREIGN MODELS Key Strengths:

OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Philippines: Emphasis on developing a broader skill set
for diverse career paths, integrating both theoretical
knowledge and practical skills.
1. Philippine K-12 Curriculum vs. Singapore Curriculum
US Common Core: The standards provide consistency
Curriculum Approach: across states and encourage the development of skills
The K-12 curriculum in the Philippines is learner- needed for success in college and career readiness.
centered and integrates a spiral progression approach, 4. Philippine K-12 vs. Australian Curriculum
where topics are revisited at increasing levels of
complexity. It focuses on core subjects (Math, Science, Australia: Australia’s curriculum is designed around
English) and adds specialized tracks in Senior High seven general capabilities,
School (e.g., Academic, Technical-Vocational-
Livelihood). including literacy
numeracy
Singapore: Singapore’s curriculum is structured around ICT capability
a syllabus-based approach with a strong emphasis on Critical thinking
mastery learning. The focus is on deep understanding, creative thinking
especially in core subjects like Math and Science. personal capabilities
Singapore also prioritizes continuous assessment and social capabilities
uses a streaming system that places students in tracks
based on their academic performance. The curriculum is outcome-based, focusing on
developing these key competencies across various
Key Strengths: subjects.

Philippines: Flexibility in tailoring education paths (e.g., Key Strengths:

STEM, HUMSS) for Senior High School students,
promoting both academic and vocational skills. Australia: Strong focus on both knowledge and skills
development ensures that students are not only
Singapore: World-renowned for its high academic knowledgeable in core subjects but also competent in
standards, particularly in Math and Science. The focus critical life skills.
on mastery learning helps ensure students achieve a
deep understanding of content before moving forward. Commonalities:

2. Philippine K-12 vs. Finnish Curriculum Both local and foreign models recognize the importance
of preparing students for the demands of the 21st
Curriculum Approach: century, including critical thinking, collaboration, and
adaptability.
Philippines (K-12): The focus is on preparing students
for both college and technical careers, with an emphasis Many systems are shifting toward competency-based
on acquiring skills through hands-on learning and education, aiming to ensure that students acquire skills
industry exposure. that are transferable to the real world.

Finland: The Finnish model focuses on holistic Differences:

development, emphasizing the development of both
cognitive and non-cognitive skills. The curriculum is Foreign models like Finland's and Singapore’s tend to
student-centered and flexible, with minimal standardized have fewer standardized assessments, focusing more
testing. It promotes cross-disciplinary learning and on depth of learning, while the Philippines and the US
problem-solving over rote memorization. have more structured assessments.

Key Strengths: Curricular flexibility in terms of subject choices and

vocational tracks is a key feature of the Philippines' K-12
Philippines: Broad range of vocational and technical system, whereas many foreign models, like Singapore’s,
courses offered in Senior High School. offer earlier specialization or tracking.

Finland: Finland’s model is internationally praised for

promoting equity and creativity, with teachers given
considerable freedom to adapt the curriculum to the Self-Assessment Question 1-1.
needs of their students.
1. Definition of Curriculum in the Context of the
Story
3. Philippine K-12 vs. US Common Core State
Standards In the Saber-Tooth Curriculum, curriculum can be
defined as a system of organized learning and
Curriculum Approach: teaching that reflects the needs and realities of a
society at a particular time, but which may become
US (Common Core): In the US, the Common Core State outdated if it fails to adapt to changing
Standards (CCSS) offer a set of clear and consistent environments. The story depicts the curriculum as a set
academic expectations in Math and English language of practices and knowledge initially designed to address
arts for students at each grade level. The focus is on the survival needs of a society (e.g., teaching skills like
developing critical thinking, analytical skills, and fish-grabbing, horse-clubbing, and saber-tooth tiger-
problem-solving abilities. scaring). However, as societal conditions and
environments change, such as the disappearance of the
saber-tooth tigers, the curriculum becomes obsolete but  Technological Advances: As new technologies
is stubbornly preserved for its tradition rather than its emerge, they influence the skills and knowledge
relevance. required for individuals to succeed.
 Environmental Changes: As seen in the story,
2. Curriculum Change, Reform, Development, changes in the natural environment (like the
and Design in the Context of the Story disappearance of the saber-tooth tigers) require
new skills, which should prompt changes in the
curriculum.
 Curriculum Change: In the story, curriculum  Philosophical Shifts: Different philosophical
change is depicted through the evolving perspectives, such as progressivism or
environmental and societal conditions. For essentialism, can influence how education is
instance, when the saber-tooth tigers become conceptualized and delivered.
extinct, the society no longer needs to teach the
skills associated with tiger-scaring, yet these
lessons persist. This shows that change in the Philosophies Used by New Fist in His
environment demands a change in the Curriculum
curriculum, though it is resisted by those who
hold onto traditional methods. This highlights New Fist’s curriculum design embodies certain
how external factors like societal needs and educational philosophies:
environmental conditions drive curriculum
change.  Essentialism: At the beginning, New Fist’s
 Curriculum Reform: Reform is illustrated by the curriculum follows an essentialist approach,
efforts to replace outdated methods and content. focusing on the essential skills needed for
New thinkers in the tribe begin to question the survival (e.g., fish-catching, horse-clubbing).
relevance of the old curriculum and push for a This is teacher-centered, aiming to provide
curriculum that fits the new realities (e.g., new students with practical knowledge that directly
tools and techniques for a different ecosystem). meets societal needs.
However, there is resistance from those who  Progressivism: As the environment changes,
believe in maintaining the traditional curriculum. there are calls for a more progressive
Reform in this context means rethinking the approach, where learning is adjusted to reflect
value of what is being taught and aligning it new realities. New Fist, being a forward-thinker,
with the current needs of the learners. could be seen as embodying this philosophy,
 Curriculum Development: Curriculum advocating for an education system that adapts
development in the story involves the creation of to learners’ changing circumstances.
new learning experiences that align with the Progressivism promotes student-centered
tribe's new circumstances. New Fist, the learning, where education should be relevant to
protagonist, initially develops the curriculum the present and prepare learners for future
based on what the tribe needs to survive (e.g., challenges.
catching fish, fighting off wild animals). Later,
new developments become necessary as
Describe in detail the process that New-Fist took to
environmental conditions shift. This process of
construct a curriculum for his people
developing new content and skills that
address the changing needs of society
reflects curriculum development. In the Saber-Tooth Curriculum, New-Fist's journey to
 Curriculum Design: The story portrays construct a curriculum for his people is an allegory that
curriculum design as a deliberate process of mirrors the real-world process of curriculum
selecting and organizing knowledge and development. The story humorously yet insightfully
skills that are considered valuable at a specific captures the steps and challenges involved in designing
time. Initially, the curriculum was designed a curriculum that meets the needs of society. Here's a
around the pressing need to survive in the wild detailed description of the process New-Fist undertook:
by hunting and defending against predators. The
design reflects the practical needs of society. 1. Identifying Societal Needs
However, the inflexibility of the design becomes
apparent when these skills are no longer New-Fist began by observing the survival challenges
applicable but continue to be taught. his people faced in their environment. His community
was primarily focused on survival, and he noticed that
3. Concept of Curriculum Change they needed specific skills to thrive. The primary threats
and opportunities in their environment revolved around:
Curriculum change is an inevitable response to shifting
societal needs, technological advancements, and  Food acquisition: The tribe needed skills to
environmental factors. It involves revising educational catch fish from the rivers, which was a key food
goals, teaching strategies, and content to stay relevant source.
to the current context. In the story, the disappearance of  Protection and survival: There were wild
the saber-tooth tigers serves as a metaphor for how the horses that needed to be controlled, and
real-world changes can make a curriculum obsolete. A dangerous saber-tooth tigers posed a threat.
curriculum that does not evolve with these changes
becomes irrelevant to learners. New-Fist understood that to ensure the survival and
progress of his people, the community needed practical
Factors Influencing Curriculum Change: skills to adapt to the environment. This step of needs
assessment is crucial in curriculum development, as it
helps in determining the purpose and focus of the
 Societal Needs: As societal demands evolve,
education system.
so too must the curriculum. If a society moves
from survival-based skills to more advanced,
technological skills, the curriculum must adapt. 2. Establishing Learning Objectives
Based on his observations, New-Fist identified the tribe faced. Students learned the necessary skills to
essential skills that people needed to survive. These survive and protect their community. The success of the
skills became the core objectives of his curriculum: curriculum was measured informally through practical
application—students who could catch fish, club
 Fish-grabbing: The ability to catch fish using horses, or scare saber-tooth tigers were deemed
hands. successful.
 Horse-clubbing: The skill to defend oneself
against wild horses and hunt them. This phase mirrors the evaluation stage of curriculum
 Saber-tooth tiger-scaring: The technique of development, where the effectiveness of the curriculum
protecting the tribe from dangerous predators is assessed based on whether the learning objectives
like the saber-tooth tiger. are achieved.

These objectives were directly tied to the immediate 6. Challenges and Resistance to Change
needs of the society and were designed to equip
learners with practical skills to address the challenges of As time passed and the environment changed, the
their environment. New-Fist aimed to teach these skills animals that had once been central to the tribe's survival,
systematically so that younger generations could learn such as the saber-tooth tigers and wild horses,
them efficiently. disappeared from the ecosystem. The world around the
tribe evolved, but the curriculum designed by New-Fist
3. Selecting Content and Designing Activities was resistant to change. Despite the irrelevance of the
old skills, the tribe continued to teach fish-grabbing,
Once New-Fist identified the essential skills, he began to horse-clubbing, and tiger-scaring because they had
design specific activities and lessons to teach these become traditions.
skills:
New-Fist faced resistance from traditionalists who
 For fish-grabbing, New-Fist taught the younger believed that the original curriculum held intrinsic value,
members of the tribe how to wade into rivers even when it was no longer practical. This resistance
and catch fish with their hands. highlights a common challenge in curriculum
 For horse-clubbing, the curriculum involved development: once a curriculum is institutionalized, it
teaching students how to create and use clubs becomes difficult to adapt to new realities.
to fend off wild horses and potentially hunt them
for food. 7. Attempts at Reform and Adaptation
 For saber-tooth tiger-scaring, New-Fist
devised methods for students to practice using Some forward-thinking members of the tribe recognized
spears or tools to defend themselves from that the old skills were no longer relevant and tried to
predators. reform the curriculum. They advocated for new lessons
that would better address the tribe’s evolving needs
This stage represents the content selection and (e.g., farming or other new technologies). However, the
pedagogical strategies phase in curriculum traditionalists resisted change, clinging to the outdated
development. New-Fist chose content that was highly curriculum because they saw it as essential to their
relevant to the tribe's needs and created hands-on identity.
activities that would ensure mastery of these critical
survival skills. This part of the story mirrors the tension between
tradition and innovation in curriculum reform, where
4. Implementation and Teaching educational systems struggle to let go of outdated
practices despite changes in the environment or society.
New-Fist began teaching these skills to the younger
generation. His approach was experiential, where Conclusion
learners were not confined to verbal or abstract
instruction. Instead, they engaged in active learning by The process New-Fist took to construct the curriculum
performing the tasks under his supervision: reflects the basic stages of modern curriculum
development, including:
 Students practiced catching fish in rivers,
learning through repeated experience until they 1. Needs assessment: Observing societal needs
mastered the skill. and identifying relevant skills.
 They engaged in mock or real horse-clubbing 2. Learning objectives: Defining the specific goals
sessions, practicing the techniques needed to and skills that learners need.
defend themselves or hunt. 3. Content selection and design: Creating
 The students learned how to scare saber-tooth lessons and activities that teach these skills.
tigers by practicing specific movements and 4. Implementation: Actively teaching the skills
using weapons in controlled situations. through practical, hands-on methods.
5. Evaluation: Assessing whether students have
The hands-on, practical teaching methods used by successfully learned the skills.
New-Fist reflect a form of direct instruction suited to the 6. Reform challenges: Dealing with resistance to
needs of his people. The curriculum was based on curriculum change when societal conditions
applied knowledge that learners could immediately use evolve.
in their daily lives.
In Ronald Doll’s 1989 book, Curriculum
5. Evaluation of Success Improvement: Decision Making and Process, the
definition of curriculum is presented as a dynamic
New-Fist's curriculum initially proved effective because it and comprehensive concept. According to Doll,
directly addressed the environmental challenges the curriculum is not just a collection of subjects or
courses but an intentional and organized plan of designing learning experiences, organizing
experiences designed to foster learning, growth, content, and evaluating outcomes.
and development in students.  Hilda Taba (1962): Taba saw curriculum as
a product of systematic planning. She
Key Elements of Doll’s Definition of proposed that curriculum development
Curriculum: should start with teachers identifying
specific objectives, selecting content,
1. Planned Learning Experiences: organizing the content logically, and then
Curriculum involves deliberate planning. It evaluating the curriculum.
encompasses all learning experiences—  Ronald Doll (1989): Doll described
both formal (structured lessons, subjects) curriculum as the total plan of learning
and informal (social interactions, experiences, incorporating formal and
extracurricular activities)—that are intended informal activities. He emphasized that
to help students grow intellectually, curriculum should be flexible, adaptable,
emotionally, socially, and physically. and continuously improving, encompassing
2. Broad and Inclusive: Doll emphasizes that not only academic subjects but also the
curriculum is not limited to academic methods, assessments, and values of
subjects alone. It includes everything that education.
happens in the educational environment—  Philip Jackson (1992): Jackson highlighted
activities, teaching methods, assessments, the concept of the "hidden curriculum,"
and even the values and behaviors that are which includes the lessons that are not
taught and learned. explicitly taught but learned through the
3. Decision-Making Process: Doll views social environment and interactions in the
curriculum as a process of decision-making, classroom.
where educators, administrators, and
stakeholders continuously make choices 2. How Each Definition Differs
about what to teach, how to teach, and how
to assess learning. These decisions are  Dewey vs. Tyler: Dewey’s definition
influenced by societal needs, educational emphasizes the process of learning and
philosophies, and learner characteristics. student-centered experiences, whereas
4. Continuous Improvement: Curriculum is Tyler’s approach is more outcome-based,
seen as flexible and dynamic, constantly focusing on achieving predetermined
evolving to meet the changing needs of objectives.
students and society. Doll advocates for the  Taba vs. Doll: Taba’s model is more
ongoing improvement of the curriculum teacher-driven, starting with the
based on evaluation, reflection, and identification of specific learning goals by
feedback from teachers and learners. teachers, while Doll’s definition is more
holistic and continuous, emphasizing the
Overall Definition: adaptability of the curriculum to social and
educational changes.
 Jackson vs. Others: Jackson’s concept of
Doll defines curriculum as the total plan of
the hidden curriculum goes beyond formal
learning experiences, structured and organized
learning, recognizing that students also
by educational institutions, to foster the holistic
learn through implicit experiences like
development of students. It encompasses not
social norms, values, and behaviors, which
only the content taught but also the methods used
are often not part of the formal curriculum.
to deliver that content, the interactions within the
classroom, and the larger goals of education aimed
at preparing students for life beyond school. 3. Who Provided a Complete and Workable
Definition?
Self-Assessment Questions
While all definitions offer valuable insights, Ronald
Doll’s (1989) definition is perhaps the most
1. Comparison of Different Definitions of complete and workable. His emphasis on the
Curriculum curriculum as a comprehensive plan that
integrates both academic and social learning
 John Dewey (1902): Dewey viewed experiences, along with his focus on continuous
curriculum as a dynamic and evolving improvement, makes it a flexible and adaptable
experience that is directly tied to the model for modern educational contexts.
interests, needs, and development of
students. He emphasized learning through 4. Distinguishing Curriculum, Syllabus, Scheme
real-life experiences, with a focus on of Work, Course of Study, and Lesson Note
problem-solving and critical thinking.
 Ralph Tyler (1949): Tyler defined
 Curriculum vs. Syllabus:
curriculum as a structured plan of learning
o The curriculum is the broad
based on clearly defined objectives. His
model, known as the "Tyler Rationale," framework that encompasses all
focuses on setting educational goals, learning experiences, goals, and
objectives that students are
 expected to achieve during their environmental education, and global
education. It includes content, citizenship, curricularists broaden the
teaching methods, assessment, and curriculum to encompass modern societal
the development of values and skills. needs.
 Reducing and Concentrating: During some
o The syllabus is a more specific
periods, U.S. schools have reduced focus on
document that outlines the topics, traditional subjects, like arts and physical
content, and materials that will be education, to concentrate more on core subjects
covered in a particular course or subject. such as reading, mathematics, and science
 Curriculum vs. Scheme of Work: (e.g., No Child Left Behind Act).
o The curriculum provides a  Augmenting and Retraction: U.S. education
comprehensive plan of what should be policies often augment the curriculum by adding
taught over the entire education cycle. new topics, such as financial literacy or
o The scheme of work is a detailed coding, while retracting outdated subjects that
are no longer relevant.
breakdown of the content from the  Tightening and Increasing Standards: In
curriculum, usually organized in weeks response to international comparisons (e.g.,
or terms, showing how each part will be PISA rankings), U.S. curricularists have
taught and when. introduced reforms that tighten standards, as
 Curriculum vs. Course of Study: seen in the implementation of Common Core
o The curriculum is a general framework Standards and increased accountability through
that includes educational objectives, standardized testing.
teaching strategies, and assessment
criteria. 3. Nature of Curriculum
o A course of study is a specific subject
or discipline outlined within the broader In my opinion, the nature of the curriculum is dynamic,
curriculum, with details of the content multifaceted, and context-driven. It is a reflection of
and materials for that particular area. societal values, cultural norms, and educational priorities
at a particular moment in time. Curriculum serves not
 Curriculum vs. Lesson Note:
only to transmit knowledge but also to prepare students
o The curriculum provides long-term for active participation in society, shaping them as future
goals and frameworks for education. citizens. As society evolves, so must the curriculum,
o A lesson note is a short-term plan used adapting to new challenges, innovations, and the
by teachers for daily or weekly lessons, changing needs of students.
detailing the objectives, activities,
resources, and methods to be used for
each specific class.
TASK/Activity 1-4
Self-Assessment Question 1-3
Historical Movement of Curriculum in the Philippines
1. Realization on Curriculum Changes in the U.S. (Spanish Period to K-12 Curriculum)

From analyzing curriculum changes in the U.S., several Time

realizations can be deduced: Period Curriculum Description
Frame
Curriculum focused on
 Dynamic and Responsive Nature: U.S. religious education under
curriculum changes have been a response to the control of Spanish
societal shifts, technological advancements, and 1565-
Spanish Period missionaries. Education was
global influences. For example, the inclusion of 1898
limited to the elite, with a
STEM education, a focus on 21st-century skills, focus on Catholic doctrine,
and adapting to diverse student populations language, and culture.
demonstrate how the curriculum evolves to meet
The U.S. introduced the
contemporary needs.
public school system, and
 Integration of Multiple Perspectives: U.S.
the curriculum shifted to
curricula have become more inclusive over time,
include English, science,
integrating multicultural education and 1898-
American Period mathematics, and
addressing equity, showing an increased 1946
democratic principles.
awareness of diversity and social justice issues.
Education became more
 Increased Accountability and
accessible, but still with
Standardization: Realization of the importance
colonial undertones.
of outcomes-based education has led to
standardized testing and frameworks like the Emphasis on Filipino
Common Core to ensure consistent educational identity and nationalism.
standards across states. The curriculum began
Commonwealth 1935-
integrating subjects that
Period 1946
encouraged civic
2. How U.S. Curricularists Adjust the Curriculum consciousness and
economic self-sufficiency.
U.S. curricularists have employed various strategies to Post-War Period 1946- The curriculum was aimed
modify curricula to suit the needs of the time: 1970s at nation-building, with a
focus on industrial and
 Organizing and Broadening: By integrating vocational education.
new content areas such as digital literacy, Emphasis was placed on
 Time  Constructivism is evident in the K-12
Period Curriculum Description curriculum with its emphasis on inquiry-based
Frame
citizenship and technical learning, where students actively engage in
skills for post-war recovery. activities and projects.
Education was used to
promote the government’s 3. Curriculum Implemented in the Philippines and
ideologies. The curriculum Applied Theories
1972- became heavily centralized,
Martial Law Era
1986 focusing on values  K-12 Curriculum:
education and citizenship o Applied Theory: Constructivism and
training in support of Progressivism.
national stability. o Justification: The K-12 curriculum
After the EDSA Revolution, encourages learner-centered
curriculum reforms focused approaches through project-based
on human rights, learning, problem-solving, and critical
1987 Curriculum 1987-
democratic values, and thinking activities. The Senior High
(Post-EDSA) 1990s
critical thinking, reflecting School tracks (e.g., Academic,
the country's restored Technical-Vocational) are designed to
democracy. meet individual students' needs and
The BEC emphasized the future career paths, aligning with
development of foundational progressive educational ideals.
BEC (Basic skills (3Rs – reading,
Education 2002 writing, arithmetic), along 4. Other Theories Used in the Present-Day
Curriculum) with values education and Curriculum in the Philippines
strengthening science and
math.  Multiple Intelligences Theory (Howard
The current curriculum Gardner): This theory is reflected in the current
expands basic education to K-12 curriculum, which recognizes that students
12 years, adding two years have different strengths (e.g., linguistic, logical-
of Senior High School. The mathematical, musical, interpersonal) and
2012- curriculum is aligned with provides varied activities to cater to different
K-12 Curriculum
present international standards, intelligences.
integrating 21st-century  21st-Century Skills Framework: The K-12
skills, technical-vocational curriculum emphasizes the development of skills
education, and global like critical thinking, collaboration,
citizenship. communication, and creativity, which are key
components of 21st-century learning theory.

Self-Assessment Question 1-4 Self-Assessment Question 1-5

1. Theories that Guide Curriculum in the U.S. 1. Persons Involved in the K-12 Curriculum

 Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors  Intended Curriculum (Planned Curriculum):

and external stimuli. Curriculum based on this The intended curriculum refers to what is
theory emphasizes reinforcement, rewards, and officially prescribed by authorities and is meant
measurable outcomes (e.g., Skinner). to be taught in schools.
 Constructivism: Suggests that learners actively o Persons Involved:
construct their knowledge through experiences.  Department of Education
The curriculum designed under this theory is (DepEd) officials and curriculum
student-centered and encourages inquiry-based planners: They create and
learning (e.g., Piaget, Vygotsky). design the curriculum
 Progressivism: Inspired by John Dewey, this framework, set standards, and
theory emphasizes real-world problem-solving define the learning
and learning by doing. The curriculum is flexible, competencies and objectives for
student-centered, and experiential. each subject.
 Essentialism: Focuses on core knowledge and  Curriculum specialists: These
skills that every student should learn. Curriculum are experts in specific subjects
based on this theory is traditional and content- who contribute to the
focused, emphasizing basic subjects like math, development of learning
reading, and science. materials, textbooks, and
 Perennialism: Advocates teaching enduring instructional guides.
ideas and universal truths. Curriculum is based  Policy makers and
on classic works of literature, philosophy, and educational consultants: They
history, with a focus on developing rational provide input on educational
thought. policies and strategies, ensuring
the curriculum aligns with
national and international
2. Are These Theories Applied in the Philippine
standards.
Curriculum?
 Implemented Curriculum (Taught
Curriculum): The implemented curriculum
Yes, many of these theories are applied in the Philippine refers to the actual teaching and learning
curriculum. For example: processes that take place in the classroom.
o Persons Involved:
  Teachers: They are the primary  Intended Curriculum:
implementers of the curriculum, o Involvement: Primarily involves
responsible for delivering policymakers, curriculum developers,
lessons, facilitating learning and educational authorities. Their
activities, and adapting decisions are influenced by national
instructional methods to meet goals, economic needs, international
students' needs. standards, and the results of previous
 School administrators curriculum evaluations.
(principals, department  Implemented Curriculum:
heads): They oversee the o Involvement: Teachers play the most
implementation of the critical role, as they interpret and adapt
curriculum, provide support to the curriculum for delivery. The context
teachers, and ensure of the school environment (e.g.,
compliance with DepEd available resources, class sizes) and
standards. students’ needs also influence how the
 Instructional coaches: They curriculum is implemented.
assist teachers with instructional  Achieved Curriculum:
strategies and help them align o Involvement: In this level, students'
classroom practices with understanding and performance reflect
curriculum goals. the effectiveness of the implemented
 Achieved Curriculum (Learned Curriculum): curriculum. Teachers use assessments
The achieved curriculum refers to what students to gauge student learning, while parents
have actually learned or retained from the taught may support their children's education
curriculum. It is assessed through exams, outside of school. School administrators
projects, and performance-based evaluations. also evaluate the overall academic
o Persons Involved: performance of students to ensure the
 Students: The primary intended goals are being met.
receivers of the curriculum.
Their level of mastery of the 4. Perceived Problems with the K-12 Curriculum
intended learning outcomes
represents the achieved
curriculum. As a student, teacher, or parent, some perceived
 Teachers: They assess problems with the present K-12 curriculum include:
students’ progress through
various forms of evaluation,  Overloaded Curriculum: Many stakeholders
providing feedback and making feel that the K-12 curriculum is overloaded with
necessary adjustments to content, making it difficult for students to master
ensure learning outcomes are core concepts. There is often not enough time to
met. cover all the topics adequately, leading to
 Parents: Indirectly involved superficial understanding rather than deep
through support for their learning.
children's learning at home,  Teacher Preparedness: Some teachers feel
monitoring their academic underprepared to deliver the K-12 curriculum,
progress, and reinforcing especially in areas where new subjects (such as
lessons learned in school. senior high school tracks) were introduced.
Insufficient training and lack of resources (e.g.,
2. Forms of Curriculum in Each Level textbooks, teaching aids) are commonly
reported issues.
 Mismatched Skills and Real-Life Application:
 Intended Curriculum: There is a concern that the K-12 curriculum
o Form: Curriculum guides, standards- doesn’t fully align with real-world needs,
based frameworks, learning particularly in preparing students for
competencies, syllabi, and textbooks. employment or entrepreneurship after
These documents specify the content, graduation. Some students in technical-
skills, and knowledge students are vocational tracks report that the skills they learn
expected to acquire. are outdated or not in line with industry
 Implemented Curriculum: standards.
o Form: Lesson plans, instructional  Inadequate Resources: In many schools,
activities, teaching strategies, and particularly in rural areas, there is a lack of
classroom materials (e.g., handouts, adequate facilities, materials, and resources to
multimedia presentations). The way the implement the curriculum effectively.
curriculum is delivered varies depending Overcrowded classrooms and insufficient
on the teacher’s instructional methods instructional materials make it hard for teachers
and the resources available. to deliver lessons as planned.
 Achieved Curriculum:  Assessment Issues: The current focus on
o Form: Results from assessments, summative assessments, such as standardized
including exams, quizzes, projects, tests, may not fully reflect students' learning
and portfolios. Standardized tests such progress. Many argue for more diverse and
as the National Achievement Test (NAT) meaningful assessments that evaluate higher-
also measure student achievement order thinking and problem-solving skills.
relative to the curriculum goals.  Gaps in Teacher Training: While the
curriculum requires innovative, learner-centered
3. Involvement in the Context of Each Level teaching strategies, many teachers still struggle
with this transition due to gaps in training,
 particularly in newer areas such as STEM and In summary, the intended curriculum is what
inquiry-based learning. should be taught, the implemented curriculum is
what is actually taught, and the achieved
Levels/ Person Involved Form Context curriculum is what the students have learned.
Categories
intended DepEd, School Curriculum System-Wide
Each level involves different stakeholders and plays
curriculum Authorities Guides, Books,
Trainings
a critical role in the education process.
materials

1. Psychological and Socio-Cultural Factors

implemented Teachers, Teacher Test, Teaching Local
curriculum Aides, Substitutes Practice Community Affecting Curricular Decisions in Science and
Mathematics
achieved Student, Parents, Test Results, Personal Curricular decisions in science and mathematics
curriculum Universities/college Report Card,
Grades are shaped by a combination of psychological and
socio-cultural factors that influence how students
1. Intended Curriculum learn and how these subjects are prioritized.
 Person Involved: DepEd (Department of Psychological Factors:
Education), School Authorities  Cognitive Development: The stages of
 Form: Curriculum guides, textbooks, cognitive development (e.g., Piaget’s stages
training materials of learning) play a crucial role in determining
 Context: This is the official, system-wide the complexity of the content delivered at
curriculum designed by educational each level of education. Science and
authorities (like DepEd in the Philippines). It mathematics curricula are often structured
outlines the learning goals, standards, and to align with students’ ability to think
competencies that students are expected to abstractly, solve problems, and process
achieve. The intended curriculum information.
represents the "plan" and includes the  Motivation and Interest: Student
resources (books, guides, etc.) and policies motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic,
to be followed. heavily influences curricular decisions.
2. Implemented Curriculum Curriculum developers often incorporate
 Person Involved: Teachers, Teacher real-world applications of math and science
Aides, Substitutes concepts to engage students and make the
 Form: Tests, teaching practices subjects more relevant.
 Context: This level refers to how teachers  Learning Styles: Different students have
actually deliver the curriculum in the different learning styles (visual, auditory,
classroom. It’s the enacted version of the kinesthetic, etc.). Science and mathematics
intended curriculum and can vary curricula may incorporate varied
depending on the teacher’s approach, instructional strategies to accommodate
resources available, and specific teaching diverse learners and improve retention and
practices. This is where day-to-day comprehension.
instruction, lesson planning, and classroom  Prior Knowledge and Conceptual Gaps:
assessments happen, tailored to the needs Especially in a subject like mathematics,
of the local school community. where concepts build upon one another,
3. Achieved Curriculum curricular decisions take into account the
 Person Involved: Students, Parents, need to scaffold learning to ensure that
Universities/Colleges students have mastered foundational skills
 Form: Test results, report cards, grades before progressing to more complex ideas.
 Context: The achieved curriculum reflects Socio-Cultural Factors:
what students actually learn and achieve.  Cultural Relevance: Socio-cultural contexts
It’s evaluated through assessments like test can determine how science and
results, report cards, and other forms of mathematics content is framed or
academic records. It is personal to the presented. Curricula might integrate local
student but has implications beyond the examples or culturally relevant topics to
individual, especially for parents and future make the content more accessible and
institutions (like colleges or universities) that meaningful to students. For instance, in the
use these results to make decisions about a Philippines, local contexts such as
student's academic progress or environmental issues or indigenous
opportunities. knowledge systems could be used to make
science more relatable.
  Gender Stereotypes and Expectations: ability to focus on delivering quality
Societal norms and gender expectations instruction. This affects how much of the
can influence student engagement and intended curriculum is implemented and
achievement in science and math. how creatively teachers can engage their
Curricular decisions may need to address students in complex subjects like science
these biases by promoting gender-neutral and math.
and inclusive practices to encourage equal Society-Centered Issues:
participation.  Global Competitiveness: The push for
 Economic and Technological Factors: countries to remain competitive in a global
Access to technology, quality of school economy has placed a greater emphasis on
infrastructure, and the availability of STEM education. This societal pressure
resources in the local community impact influences curricular decisions to prioritize
how science and math curricula are science and math education, often at the
developed. For example, communities with expense of other subjects.
limited access to labs or digital resources  Socioeconomic Disparities: In societies
may adapt the curriculum to focus more on where there is a wide economic gap,
conceptual learning with fewer practical curricular decisions are often influenced by
activities. the availability of resources and the
disparities between urban and rural
education systems. Students in
2. Emerging Issues Surrounding the Learner,
marginalized communities may not have
Teacher, and Society that Impact Curricular
access to high-quality STEM education,
Decisions
limiting their opportunities for success in
The dynamic relationship between learners,
these fields.
teachers, and society leads to emerging issues that
 Cultural Resistance: In some cases,
shape curricular decisions, especially in science
societal values may conflict with scientific
and mathematics.
principles. For example, certain scientific
Learner-Centered Issues:
topics such as evolution or climate change
 Diverse Learning Needs: Increasing
may face opposition due to cultural or
awareness of learning differences (e.g.,
religious beliefs. This creates a tension in
special education needs, gifted learners)
how these topics are taught or even
has led to calls for more personalized,
whether they are included in the curriculum.
differentiated instruction in science and
math curricula. Curricula must be flexible
enough to meet these diverse needs. 3. Basis for Selecting Subject Matter Content
 Digital Literacy and Remote Learning: and Organizing Subject Matter Presentation
The rise of technology, especially following Selecting and organizing subject matter is a crucial
the COVID-19 pandemic, has highlighted aspect of curriculum development, particularly in
the need to integrate digital literacy and science and mathematics. There are several key
online learning tools into science and math considerations that guide these decisions:
curricula. This shift challenges traditional Selecting Subject Matter Content:
methods of instruction and assessment.  Relevance to Educational Goals: Content
Teacher-Centered Issues: must align with the broader goals of
 Teacher Training and Competence: The education, such as developing critical
quality of science and math education is thinking, problem-solving skills, and
often limited by the availability of well- preparing students for future careers. In
trained teachers. Teachers who lack science and mathematics, content is often
confidence or competence in these subjects selected to build foundational knowledge
may struggle to effectively deliver the that will be applicable in higher education
curriculum, leading to inconsistent and real-world scenarios.
implementation. Ongoing professional  Developmental Appropriateness: The
development in STEM education is critical subject matter should be suitable for the
to addressing this issue. learners’ cognitive and emotional
 Workload and Burnout: Teachers face development levels. In mathematics, for
increasing pressures from societal instance, concrete concepts like basic
expectations, administrative tasks, and arithmetic are introduced early, while more
large class sizes, all of which impact their
 abstract concepts like algebra and calculus  Jean Piaget: Piaget proposed four stages
come later. of cognitive development:
 Balance of Breadth and Depth: The 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):
curriculum must strike a balance between Infants learn through sensory
covering a wide range of topics and allowing experiences and manipulating
for deeper exploration of key concepts. In objects.
science, students may be introduced to 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):
various disciplines (biology, chemistry, Children develop memory and
physics), but they also need opportunities to imagination. They engage in pretend
explore topics in greater depth as they play but struggle with logical
progress through the curriculum. reasoning.
 Current and Future Relevance: Science 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11
and mathematics content must reflect years): Children begin to think
contemporary issues and future needs. For logically about concrete events and
example, curricula might increasingly understand the concept of
emphasize topics like data science, conservation.
environmental sustainability, or artificial 4. Formal Operational Stage (12
intelligence in response to global trends. years and up): Adolescents develop
Organizing Subject Matter Presentation: the ability to think about abstract
 Spiral Progression: In many educational concepts, problem-solve, and use
systems (including the Philippines), the deductive reasoning.
curriculum is organized in a spiral  Erik Erikson: Erikson focused on the
progression, where concepts are introduced psychosocial development of learners and
at basic levels and revisited with increasing proposed eight stages, each with a central
complexity as students advance. This conflict that must be resolved. For example,
approach is particularly effective in science during adolescence, learners experience
and mathematics, where topics build on one the conflict of Identity vs. Role Confusion,
another. where they explore personal identity and
 Sequential Learning: Mathematics, in direction in life.
particular, follows a highly sequential  Lev Vygotsky: Vygotsky emphasized the
structure, with later topics depending on social aspect of learning, proposing that
mastery of earlier ones. Organizing subject learners develop through interactions with
matter in a logical sequence ensures that more knowledgeable others (teachers,
students acquire the necessary skills before parents, peers) and through cultural tools.
tackling more advanced concepts. His concept of the Zone of Proximal
 Thematic or Interdisciplinary Development (ZPD) describes the
Approaches: Some curricula organize difference between what a learner can do
content around themes or real-world independently and what they can achieve
problems, integrating science and with guidance.
mathematics with other disciplines. This can
help students see the connections between
2. What are the Characteristics, Needs, and
different subjects and apply their knowledge
Tasks of Learners from Kindergarten to Senior
in practical ways.
High School According to Psychologists?
 Scaffolding: Instructors organize content in
 Kindergarten (Ages 5-6):
a way that supports learning by breaking
o Characteristics: Highly curious,
down complex topics into smaller, more
manageable pieces. This allows students to developing fine motor skills,
build confidence and understanding egocentric, concrete thinkers.
o Needs: Play-based learning,
gradually, which is especially important in
science and math where cumulative socialization, hands-on activities.
learning is key. o Tasks: Develop language skills,
Self-Assessment Question 2-1 basic numeracy, social-emotional
1. Historically, How Psychologists Describe skills, and gross motor coordination.
Learners' Growth and Development?  Elementary School (Ages 7-12):
Psychologists have historically described learners’ o Characteristics: Growing
growth and development through various stages. independence, concrete operational
Key theorists include: thinkers (Piaget), eager to explore.
 o Needs: Structured routines, clear forms of assessment to cater to individual
rules, opportunities for cooperative needs.
learning.
o Tasks: Develop basic literacy and
4. Describe the Kinds of Individual Learners in
numeracy, acquire social skills,
Your Classroom. How Do You Attend to Their
master simple problem-solving.
Individual Differences?
 Junior High School (Ages 13-15):
In my classroom, I encounter several types of
o Characteristics: Entering
learners, including:
adolescence, experiencing physical
 Visual Learners: They prefer diagrams,
and emotional changes, beginning
charts, and watching demonstrations.
formal operational thinking (Piaget),
 Auditory Learners: They grasp information
peer influence grows.
better through listening (lectures,
o Needs: Emotional support, guidance
discussions).
on identity formation, increasingly
 Kinesthetic Learners: They learn best
complex academic tasks.
through hands-on activities and movement.
o Tasks: Develop abstract reasoning,
 Gifted Learners: They quickly grasp
establish personal and social
complex concepts and often need advanced
identity, manage emotions, prepare
materials.
for adult roles.
 Learners with Special Needs: They may
 Senior High School (Ages 16-18):
require accommodations, like simplified
o Characteristics: Capable of
instructions, more time, or assistive
abstract thought, focused on technologies.
personal identity and career goals, To address these differences, I:
preparing for adulthood.  Differentiate Instruction: I offer multiple
o Needs: Career guidance, autonomy,
ways to access content (videos, readings,
and higher-order thinking tasks. discussions, hands-on activities) and
o Tasks: Refine critical thinking skills, encourage students to demonstrate their
make decisions about future careers understanding in different formats
or higher education, develop (presentations, essays, experiments).
interpersonal relationships and self-  Use Scaffolding: I break down complex
regulation. concepts into smaller, more manageable
steps and provide extra support for students
3. What is the Significance of Learners’ Abilities who need it.
 Group Work: I often use heterogeneous
in Crafting a Curriculum?
Learners' abilities are crucial in crafting a grouping, allowing students to collaborate
curriculum as they help in: and learn from each other's strengths.
 Provide Choice: I give students options in
 Personalization of Learning:
Acknowledging diverse abilities allows how they engage with material, which helps
educators to design curriculum activities to increase engagement and ownership of
that meet students where they are and learning.
challenge them appropriately.
 Curriculum Pacing: Tailoring the 5. 21st Century Learners’ Characteristics
curriculum to learners' cognitive and social 21st-century learners have the following
development ensures that content is neither characteristics:
too easy nor too difficult, thus fostering  Tech-Savvy: They are highly skilled with
optimal learning conditions. digital devices and online tools, and they
 Retention and Engagement: Matching expect the integration of technology in their
curriculum to the abilities of learners learning experience.
improves their engagement, motivation, and  Collaborative: They prefer learning
retention, as they feel competent and environments that foster communication
capable of achieving learning outcomes. and teamwork, often engaging in group
 Differentiation: Understanding abilities work and project-based learning.
helps teachers create differentiated  Multitaskers: They tend to switch between
instructional strategies, using scaffolding, tasks and juggle multiple types of media or
various modes of instruction, and multiple inputs at once.
  Curious and Inquisitive: They often 1. Active Learning: Create a visual diagram
engage in self-directed learning, seeking of the human digestive system using
information from various online platforms multimedia. Students will label each part
and resources. and simulate the digestion process using an
 Global and Culturally Aware: They are interactive app.
exposed to global cultures and perspectives 2. Diverse Learning Materials: Provide
through social media and digital platforms, videos and infographics about the
making them more globally conscious and digestive system, alongside traditional texts.
tolerant of diversity. 3. Self-Pacing: Allow students to go through
the interactive materials at their own pace
and revisit sections they find challenging.
6. How Does a Teacher Satisfy 40 Students with
4. Flexible Grouping: Group visual learners
Varying Strengths and Weaknesses? What
with kinesthetic learners to perform a
Insights Can We Get from Students’ Profiles in
hands-on digestion experiment (e.g., using
Planning or Designing a Curriculum?
crackers to simulate the process).
A teacher can meet the needs of 40 diverse
5. Reflection and Feedback: After the
students by:
activity, students will write a reflection in
 Differentiated Instruction: Providing
their science journals, drawing and
varying levels of difficulty for different
explaining the process of digestion.
students, offering diverse modes of learning
6. Problem-Solving: Present a case study
(visual, auditory, kinesthetic), and offering
where students analyze the effects of
different types of assessments.
different diets on the digestive system.
 Formative Assessments: Regular
7. Student Autonomy: Offer students the
assessments help teachers understand
choice between creating a 3D model of the
students’ strengths and areas for
digestive system or presenting their findings
improvement, allowing for timely
as a poster.
interventions.
8. Reinforcement: Provide immediate
 Flexible Grouping: Grouping students
feedback on their visual projects and offer a
based on their abilities or interests ensures
quiz with images and diagrams for
that each learner is challenged
reinforcement.
appropriately.
9. Assessment Variety: Assess
 Student-Centered Activities: Incorporating
understanding through a combination of
student choice and interest into activities
visual projects, group work, and
can engage students with different strengths
individual quizzes, all centered around
and weaknesses.
visual aids.
From students' profiles, insights include:
 Preferred Learning Styles: Knowing
students’ preferences allows teachers to Curriculum development is influenced by a wide
tailor lessons and materials accordingly. range of factors that shape its structure and content.
 Academic Background: Understanding Below are key factors, including those you
previous academic performance helps mentioned, along with additional ones that play a
teachers identify areas where students need significant role:
more support or challenges.
 Interests and Motivations: This helps in 1. Nature of the Learners
designing lessons that are more engaging
and relevant to students, promoting better  Cognitive Development: Learners' ability
retention and motivation. to understand concepts at different stages
(based on theories like Piaget’s stages of
cognitive development).
 Learning Styles: Some learners may be
visual, auditory, or kinesthetic, which affects
how the curriculum is designed to cater to
Task/Activity 2-1: Biology Activity Using Doll's these preferences.
9 Teacher Strategies  Diverse Learning Needs: Consideration of
Learner Category: Visual Learner students with special needs, gifted students,
Biology Activity: Exploring the Human Digestive and learners from diverse backgrounds
System (linguistic, cultural, etc.).
9 Teacher Strategies by Doll:
  Developmental Stages: Physical, the inclusion/exclusion of certain topics
emotional, and social development of (e.g., evolution, sexuality education).
learners influences the pacing and content of
the curriculum. 5. Subject Matter

2. Needs of Society  Disciplinary Knowledge: Each subject has

its own body of knowledge that evolves over
 Economic Demands: Curricula must time. For instance, new scientific
prepare students for the labor market by discoveries or advances in technology lead
providing skills relevant to current and to revisions in the science and technology
future economic needs (e.g., focus on curricula.
STEM, technical-vocational education).  Interdisciplinary Approaches: Modern
 Technological Advancements: The rapid curricula often integrate multiple disciplines
development of technology necessitates (e.g., STEAM – Science, Technology,
curricula that incorporate digital literacy and Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) to
the use of technology in various fields. foster a holistic understanding of complex
 Globalization: The curriculum must equip issues.
learners with global competencies such as  Depth vs. Breadth: Curriculum designers
communication, critical thinking, and need to balance the depth of understanding
cultural awareness, to help them compete in of key concepts with the breadth of
a globalized world. knowledge across different subject areas.
 Environmental Concerns: Issues like
climate change and sustainability require 6. Political Aspect
curricula to address ecological literacy and
prepare students to deal with global  Government Policies: National educational
challenges. policies (e.g., K-12 programs, mandated
language of instruction) dictate the structure
3. History and content of curricula. Political leaders
often prioritize areas like STEM,
 Educational Philosophies: Historical nationalism, or career education to serve
influences from thinkers like John Dewey broader political goals.
(progressivism) or Paulo Freire (critical  Funding: Decisions about what content is
pedagogy) continue to shape the included in the curriculum can be influenced
philosophical foundations of curriculum by the allocation of funding, which affects
design. the resources available for implementing
 Past Educational Models: Previous certain subjects (e.g., arts education vs.
educational approaches influence the technology education).
structure and content of the current  Political Agendas: Sometimes, the
curriculum. For example, the industrial curriculum reflects the political ideologies
model of education still affects how schools of those in power. For example, civics
are organized today. education may focus on nationalism,
 National Educational Heritage: Historical political history, or governance depending
events (e.g., colonization, revolutions, on the ruling party’s agenda.
independence movements) impact how
curricula are framed, especially in subjects 7. Global Trends
like history, language, and civics.
 International Benchmarks: International
4. Socio-Cultural Changes assessments like PISA (Program for
International Student Assessment) and
 Cultural Relevance: Curricula must reflect TIMSS (Trends in International
the cultural diversity of the society. For Mathematics and Science Study) influence
example, integrating indigenous knowledge curricula to align with global standards in
and local contexts into the curriculum makes education.
learning more meaningful for students from  Global Issues: Curricula are often revised to
different cultural backgrounds. address pressing global challenges, such as
 Social Values and Norms: Shifts in societal climate change, human rights, and
values (e.g., human rights, gender equality) sustainable development goals (SDGs),
shape curriculum content to promote promoting a globally conscious mindset.
inclusion, diversity, and equity.
 Religious Beliefs: In some contexts, 8. Technological Advancements
religious values influence curriculum
design, particularly in moral education or
  Digital Literacy: With the increasing role of indigenous areas, may influence curricular
technology in education and the workforce, content to reflect the values, knowledge, and
curricula must include content on coding, practices of the community.
data literacy, and the ethical use of digital
tools. A workable definition of curriculum could be:
 Blended Learning: Technology has
transformed teaching methods, leading to
the inclusion of blended and online learning Curriculum refers to the organized and intentional
models in curricula, especially following the set of learning experiences, goals, content,
COVID-19 pandemic. teaching methods, and assessments that guide the
educational process. It encompasses the
9. Philosophical Foundations knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that
learners are expected to acquire, as well as the
 Educational Theories: The underlying instructional strategies used to facilitate learning, all
educational philosophy (e.g., behaviorism, of which are shaped by the needs of society,
constructivism, humanism) affects learners' characteristics, and the broader
curriculum design. For example, a
educational goals of the institution or system.
constructivist approach emphasizes active,
experiential learning, while a behaviorist
curriculum might focus more on Self-Assessment Question 2-2
reinforcement and rote memorization. 1. Identify and Discuss Issues or Problems
 Student-Centered Learning: Philosophical that Relate to Application of Learning
shifts toward student-centered learning Theories to Curriculum, Instruction, and
require curricula to focus more on inquiry-
Learning in Teaching Science or Math
based, collaborative, and problem-solving
activities rather than passive instruction.  Mismatch Between Learning Theories
and Classroom Practice: One issue is
10. Economic Factors that while learning theories like
constructivism or social learning theory
 Workforce Needs: Curricula are often advocate for active, student-centered
designed to meet the labor market demands,
learning, many classrooms still rely on
focusing on skills like critical thinking,
problem-solving, and adaptability to prepare traditional, teacher-centered methods.
students for the future workforce. This is particularly true in science and
 Budgetary Constraints: The economic math education, where abstract
context of the educational system influences concepts are often taught through
curricular decisions, such as the inclusion of
lectures instead of hands-on, inquiry-
certain programs (like arts or physical
education) that may be cut due to budget based learning that is better aligned with
limitations. these theories.
 Teacher Preparedness: Many teachers
11. Assessment and Evaluation Trends may not have sufficient training in
applying learning theories to classroom
 Standardized Testing: The focus on high-
stakes testing and accountability often practice. For example, using Vygotsky's
shapes curricula, as teachers and schools Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
align instruction to what will be tested. effectively requires understanding how
 Competency-Based Education: Emerging to scaffold lessons appropriately, which
trends in competency-based education shift some teachers may struggle with,
the focus of the curriculum from seat-time to
the mastery of skills and competencies, particularly in large classes.
influencing how curricula are structured.  Lack of Resources: Inquiry-based
learning, which is rooted in
12. Parental and Community Expectations constructivism, often requires resources
like laboratory equipment, technology,
 Parental Influence: Parents often have a or hands-on materials that may not be
voice in curricular decisions, especially
concerning subjects like sex education, readily available in many schools,
cultural content, or extracurricular activities. particularly in underfunded areas.
 Community Involvement: Local  Assessment Alignment: Traditional
communities, particularly in rural or assessments, such as standardized
 tests, are often focused on strategies, which can improve
memorization and do not adequately accessibility and retention.
measure the higher-order thinking skills  Emotional and Social Development:
that are encouraged by learning theories Emotional readiness is a key
like constructivism or Bloom’s psychological factor that affects
Taxonomy. This creates a misalignment students' ability to learn. Curriculum
between what is taught and what is designers need to consider the social-
tested. emotional development of students,
particularly in group work, collaboration,
and dealing with complex or
2. Analyze the Psychological Factors
controversial topics. For example, in
Discussed by Doll that Affect Curriculum
science education, discussions on
Design or Change. How Do These Factors
climate change or ethical issues in
Affect Curriculum Planning?
biotechnology need to be introduced in
 Cognitive Development: One of the
a manner that respects students'
psychological factors is the
emotional maturity.
understanding of how students develop
cognitively at different stages. For
instance, younger students may not yet 3. Which of These Issues and Problems
be ready for abstract reasoning, which is Cited by Doll Concern Us Directly and to
critical in subjects like science and What Extent? Which of These Problems are
math. Doll emphasizes the importance Not Pressing for Us as Science Teachers?
of designing curricula that are Discuss.
developmentally appropriate, ensuring  Concerns Directly:
that topics are introduced in a sequence o Cognitive Development and
that matches students’ cognitive Curriculum Sequencing: As
readiness. This means science and science teachers, ensuring that
math curricula must carefully scaffold students are cognitively ready for
content from concrete to more abstract the material is a direct concern.
concepts as students progress. Introducing abstract concepts like
 Motivation and Engagement: genetics or chemical reactions
Motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, too early can overwhelm
plays a crucial role in how students students. Careful sequencing and
engage with the curriculum. Doll scaffolding are vital to prevent
suggests that if students see relevance this.
in what they are learning or feel a sense o Engagement and Motivation:
of accomplishment, they are more likely Keeping students motivated in
to be engaged. In curriculum planning, subjects like science and math,
this means designing lessons that are which are often seen as difficult
both meaningful and challenging to or boring, is a pressing issue.
sustain student interest. Ensuring lessons are relevant to
 Learning Styles and Individual students' lives, using real-world
Differences: Doll emphasizes the applications, and incorporating
importance of recognizing that learners hands-on activities can improve
have different learning styles and needs. engagement.
Curriculum planners must consider o Individual Learning
multiple approaches to teaching content, Differences: Addressing different
providing opportunities for visual, learning styles and needs in a
auditory, and kinesthetic learners to science classroom is challenging,
engage with the material. This affects especially with diverse learners.
curriculum planning by encouraging a Providing multiple entry points
more diverse set of instructional into a lesson (e.g., through
 visuals, models, experiments)
Psychological Issues and
helps in catering to a wider range Action Taken
Factors Problems
of students.
 Less Pressing Problems: feel
support and
o Technological Limitations: overwhelmed
scaffold sensitive
While technology is important, when dealing
topics carefully,
not all aspects of science Readiness with complex,
using group
controversial
teaching require the latest discussions and
topics like
technology. In some cases, peer support.
climate change.
basic, low-tech approaches (like
field trips or simple lab Assign roles
experiments) can still be Group work within groups to
effective. The lack of high-end leads to ensure equitable
technology may not be as Social conflicts among participation;
Development students with teach
pressing as other issues, such as
differing social collaboration and
engaging learners or scaffolding
skills. conflict resolution
content. skills.

Use varied
TASK/Activity 2-2 activities,
In real classroom scenarios, psychological Many students,
including short
factors often confront teachers. Below is a particularly in
interactive
large classes,
table that identifies some psychological factors, segments and
Attention Span have short
the issues or problems they present, and frequent
attention spans
actions taken to address these issues. movement or
and easily lose
brain breaks to
Psychological Issues and focus.
Action Taken maintain
Factors Problems engagement.
Students Break down This table highlights how addressing
struggle with abstract concepts psychological factors in the classroom through
abstract into simpler, targeted actions
Cognitive concepts in concrete
Development science, like examples; use Self-Assessment Question 2-3
chemical models and 1. Explain How Changes in Society Shape and Affect
equations or simulations to aid School’s Curriculum
Changes in society influence what and how students are
genetics. understanding.
taught in schools. As society evolves, the curriculum
Incorporate must adapt to prepare students for the current and future
Students find hands-on challenges they will face. For instance:
 Technological Advancements: With the rise of
certain science activities, real-
technology, subjects like coding, robotics, and
Motivation and topics (e.g., world
digital literacy are increasingly integrated into
Engagement physics or applications, and curricula. The need for students to be digitally
chemistry) interactive literate has led to the inclusion of ICT in most
uninteresting. experiments to subjects.
engage students.  Workforce Needs: As the job market shifts,
curricula are updated to reflect the skills that
Diverse Use a mix of students need for the future. For example, as
learning styles teaching methods science and technology become more prominent
among students —visual aids, in society, there is a greater focus on STEM
Learning lead to some auditory lectures, education.
Styles disengaging and kinesthetic  Globalization: The interconnectedness of
when the experiments to countries requires students to develop global
lesson isn’t cater to all competencies, including communication, critical
thinking, and cultural awareness, which results
suited to them. learners.
in curriculum updates that emphasize these
Emotional Some students Provide emotional skills.
  Social Issues: Topics like climate change, with global standards, such as through the K-12
gender equality, and human rights are becoming reform. By extending basic education and
more relevant, prompting schools to introduce integrating 21st-century skills, the goal is to
subjects or lessons that tackle these pressing produce graduates who are better equipped for
global issues. both higher education and employment.
2. Identify Current Social, Political, and Cultural  Equity: Programs like the MTB-MLE and IPEd
Issues that Influence Curriculum (Philippine Setting) promote inclusive education, ensuring that
 Social: The rise of social media and technology learners from diverse cultural backgrounds have
has impacted communication and learning equal opportunities to succeed by using their
processes. In the Philippines, schools have mother tongue or cultural knowledge as a
started to incorporate media literacy into the foundation for learning.
curriculum to teach students critical thinking  Efficiency: Efforts to improve the efficiency of
when interacting with information on the internet. the education system are seen in programs such
 Political: Policies such as the K-12 curriculum as the ALS (Alternative Learning System),
reform, which extended basic education by two which provides a second chance for out-of-
years, reflect political decisions aimed at school youth and adults to complete basic
aligning the Philippine education system with education through non-formal and informal
global standards. It aims to improve the overall learning pathways.
quality of education and prepare students for the  Choice: The inclusion of specialized tracks in
workforce. senior high school (e.g., STEM, ABM, HUMSS)
 Cultural: The push for mother tongue-based under the K-12 curriculum allows students to
multilingual education (MTB-MLE) in the choose a path that aligns with their interests and
Philippines recognizes the country's cultural career goals, thereby increasing student
diversity. By using local languages as mediums engagement and improving overall learning
of instruction in the early grades, the curriculum outcomes.
respects and promotes the country’s rich
linguistic heritage while aiming for better
learning outcomes. TASK/Activity 2-3
3. Give an Example of a Culture-Based Curriculum. Identifying Social, Cultural, and Political
Explain Its Concept and Principles Developments in the Philippines that Affect
An example of a culture-based curriculum is Indigenous Curriculum Change in Science and Mathematics
Peoples' Education (IPEd) in the Philippines, which
How it Affects Science
aims to integrate indigenous knowledge systems and Category Development
and Math Curriculum
practices (IKSPs) into the school curriculum. This type of
curriculum draws from the local culture, traditions, and Science curriculum
values of indigenous communities, ensuring that learning increasingly incorporates
is relevant and meaningful for students from these The rise of
sustainability topics and
communities. environmental
environmental science,
 Concept: The IPEd curriculum is built on the Social awareness and
encouraging students to
idea that education should respect and climate change
address climate
incorporate the cultural contexts of indigenous issues
challenges through
learners. It emphasizes the preservation of scientific understanding.
cultural heritage and the inclusion of local
wisdom in the formal education system. Local languages are
 Principles: used to teach early
Promotion of
o Cultural Relevance: The curriculum science and math
mother tongue-
aligns with the community’s way of life, concepts, making
Cultural based instruction
beliefs, and practices. education more
through the MTB-
o Community Involvement: Indigenous accessible to students
MLE program
communities participate in the design, and promoting cultural
implementation, and evaluation of the identity in learning.
curriculum.
The science and math
o Holistic Development: The curriculum
curriculum is aligned with
not only focuses on academic skills but Implementation of
global education
also on cultural identity, social K-12 reforms and
Political standards, ensuring that
responsibility, and community focus on STEM
students are prepared for
participation. education
global challenges in
4. In the Philippine Setting, How Are Quality, Equity,
STEM fields.
Efficiency, and Choice Improved as an Impact of
Analysis of Social, Cultural, and Political Factors in
Demands from Society, Politics, and Culture?
Curriculum Change
 Quality: The Philippine education system has
been improving quality by aligning its curriculum
1. Social Development – Environmental students are exposed to more rigorous
Awareness: content, particularly in senior high
o Influence on Curriculum: The global school where students can specialize in
concern for climate change and STEM tracks.
environmental sustainability has led to
an increased focus on environmental KEY CRITERIA FOR WELL-WRITTEN
science in the curriculum. Topics such CURRICULUM MATERIALS:
as conservation, renewable energy, and
sustainability are becoming more 1. Accuracy of Material: The content must be
prominent in science education. This is scientifically and mathematically accurate.
important for preparing students to Any misconceptions or incorrect
understand and tackle ecological information must be avoided, and experts
problems that affect society. should review the material to ensure its
o Impact on Science and Math: This accuracy.
focus on environmental awareness 2. Clarity of Material: Clear communication
means that lessons in biology, is essential. The material should be written
chemistry, and even mathematics in short paragraphs, with simple sentences
include real-world applications that and words to make the content easy to
address environmental issues. For understand for the target audience.
instance, math classes might now 3. Appeal to Target User: The material
include statistical analyses of climate should be engaging and interesting from the
data, while science classes focus on user's perspective. Attention-grabbing titles,
ecosystems and sustainability. stories, and multimedia elements like
2. Cultural Development – Indigenous and diagrams, pictures, and colors can help
Local Knowledge: maintain the reader's interest.
o Influence on Curriculum: The 4. Originality in Presentation: While the
promotion of indigenous knowledge concepts are established, the presentation
systems and local languages through should be creative and original. A
programs like IPEd and MTB-MLE curriculum writer can find new, innovative
ensures that students from diverse ways to present concepts to enhance
cultural backgrounds have a curriculum understanding and engagement.
that reflects their heritage. It also
promotes respect for indigenous 1. Initial Stage (Needs Assessment and Planning)
knowledge in scientific inquiry.  Objective: Identify the need for the curriculum
o Impact on Science and Math: In and establish the foundation for its development.
science and math education, local  Key Activities:
contexts (e.g., traditional farming o Conduct needs analysis to understand
techniques or indigenous weather the learning gaps.
forecasting) may be integrated into o Define learning goals and objectives.
lessons to make learning more relevant o Identify target learners and their
to students from specific cultural requirements.
backgrounds. For example, math o Gather resources, standards, and
problems may use data from local guidelines for content creation.
sources, or science classes may study 2. Outline Stage (Curriculum Design)
local ecosystems.  Objective: Develop a framework for the
3. Political Development – K-12 Reform and curriculum.
Focus on STEM:  Key Activities:
o Influence on Curriculum: The o Create a content structure, including
implementation of K-12 education in the units, modules, or lessons.
Philippines expanded the curriculum to o Align content with the learning
align with international standards. A key objectives.
political driver of this reform was to o Decide on instructional methods and
improve the country's competitiveness in assessment strategies.
the global economy, especially in the o Plan the progression and sequence of
areas of science, technology, topics (e.g., Spiral Curriculum or other
engineering, and mathematics (STEM). models).
o Impact on Science and Math: This 3. Writing Stage (Curriculum Development)
reform has increased the emphasis on  Objective: Develop detailed content, including
STEM subjects to prepare students for lessons, activities, and assessments.
the demands of a knowledge-based  Key Activities:
economy. The math and science o Write detailed instructional materials
curricula were revised to ensure that (modules, textbooks, etc.).
 o Develop activities, projects, and  NrNrNr = Total number of
assessments that align with learning readers (students).
goals.  NxNxNx = Total number of
o Ensure content is engaging, clear, and words in the sample (300
age-appropriate. words).
o Incorporate multimedia or interactive  The acceptable range of values
elements, if applicable. for CI is 0 to 0.01, with 0
4. Formative Assessment Stage indicating perfect clarity and
 Objective: Evaluate and revise the curriculum 0.01 indicating the maximum
before full implementation. acceptable level of unclear
 Key Activities: content.
o Expert Evaluation: Request feedback 5. Summative Assessment Stage
from subject matter experts, colleagues,  Objective: Assess the overall effectiveness of
and peers on: the curriculum after implementation.
 Attainment of objectives  Key Activities:
 Accuracy of content o Implement the curriculum with a larger
 Originality group of students.
 Clarity and appeal o Collect data on student performance
o Student Involvement Index (Romey, (test scores, grades).
1968): This index evaluates how much o Survey students and teachers for
the curriculum engages students. feedback on clarity, relevance, and
Formula: engagement.
o Evaluate whether learning objectives
were achieved.
o Design an evaluation study, potentially
using one of the following methods:
1. Pre-Test/Post-Test: Measure
student knowledge before and
 Category I: Statements after curriculum use.
presenting information (teacher- 2. Control Group vs.
focused). Experimental Group: Compare
 Category II: Questions or outcomes between groups using
activities engaging students the new curriculum and those
(student-focused). using the existing one.
o Readability (Fry, 1968): Measures the 3. Longitudinal Study: Track
reading difficulty of the curriculum student performance over time
material. to assess long-term effects.
 Select 100 words from the first, o Use the findings to make further
middle, and last pages. revisions and plan for broader
 Count the number of sentences implementation.
and syllables in each sample.
Steps:
3. Compute the average number of
sentences and syllables for the
three samples.
4. Plot the average values on a
readability graph to estimate the
grade level.
5. Subtract two grade levels to
account for local norms.
o Communication Index (CI): Measures
the clarity of the curriculum based on
student feedback.
Formula:

CI=∑(f×n)Nr×Nx\text{CI} = \frac{\sum (f \times n)}{Nr \

times Nx}CI=Nr×Nx∑(f×n)
Where:
 fff = Frequency of unclear words
or elements.
 nnn = Number of students who
found a given word unclear.