ATOMS

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model Conclusions:

The positive charge of the atom is uniformly  Since most of the α-particles pass without much
distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the deflection, most of the space of an atom is vacant.
negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds  The positive charges in an atom are concentrated in
in watermelon. very small region known as nucleus. The α-particles
suffer deflection since it is repelled by the heavy
Geiger- Marsden Experiment, Rutherford’s Alpha positively charged nucleus.
Scattering Experiment or Gold Foil Experiment  The number of electrons is equal to the number of
Experimental setup: positive charges in the nucleus and hence atom is
electrically neutral.
It consists of a narrow beam
of α-particles from a radio Impact Parameter :- The perpendicular distance of the
initial velocity vector of α-particle from the centre of
active 83𝐵𝑖 214 kept in a lead
the nucleus.
cavity which is incident on a 𝜃
2
circular screen coated with 1 𝑍𝑒 cot (2)
𝑏=
ZnS after passing through a 4𝜋𝜀0 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2
2
thin gold foil of thickness Larger impact parameter means smaller deflection.
2.1×10-7m. When α-particles, scattered by the gold foil
Distance of Closest Approach :- The minimum distance
incident on the screen, light flashes are produced which is
up to which an energetic α-particle travelling directly
observed using a movable detector.
towards a nucleus can move before coming to rest and
Observations: then retraces its path.
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟0 =
4𝜋𝜀0 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣2

Rutherford’s Nuclear model of Atom

The entire positive charge and most of the atomic

mass is concentrated in a small volume called nucleus
with electrons revolving around the nucleus.

 Most of the α-particles passed undeflected through The necessary centripetal force to make the path of
the foil. electrons circular is provided by the electrostatic
 Some of the deflected through small angles. (0.14% attraction between electron and nucleus.
1
deflected more than 10 and deflected more i.e., for dynamically stable orbits,
8000
0
than 90 )
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑐
 Very few retraced the path. 2
𝑚𝑣 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The radius of the orbit,
1 𝑒2
𝑣2 = …………..…(1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟
1 𝑒2
Or, 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
………...……(2)
The velocity of electron is the square root of the above
equation.
The kinetic energy of the electron = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2
1 𝑒2
𝐾𝐸 =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The potential energy of the electron ,
 1 𝑒2
𝑃𝐸 = − 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟
Then, the total energy = KE + PE
1 𝑒2
𝑇𝐸 = − 8𝜋𝜀 …….……..(3)
0 𝑟
The negative total energy implies that the electron
is bound to the nucleus.
Limitations of nuclear model:
 According to classical electromagnetic theory,  Lyman Series – when electron jumps from higher
accelerated charges like revolving electrons orbits to the first orbit. It is in UV region.
must radiate em radiation. Hence, the electron 1 1 1
continuously losses energy and follow a spiral 𝜆
= 𝑅𝐻 (12 − 𝑛𝑖2
) where 𝑛𝑖 =2,3,4,….
path and finally, it collapse to the nucleus.  Balmer Series - when electron jumps from higher
i.e., this model could not explain the stability of orbits to the second orbit. It is the first observed series
atoms. since it is in visible region.
 In this model, electrons can revolve in orbits of 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) where 𝑛𝑖 =3,4,5,….
all possible radii. So it should emit a 𝜆 22 𝑛𝑖2

continuous spectrum which is in contradiction

to the discrete line spectrum.
i.e., this model could not explain the line spectra of
hydrogen.

Atomic Spectra

There are two types of spectra.  Paschen Series - when electron jumps from higher
 Emission Spectra: When matter is excited, it emits orbits to the third orbit. It is in the IR region.
certain wavelengths. This type of spectra is known 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − ) where 𝑛𝑖 =4,5,6,….
as emission spectra and it contain some bright lines 𝜆 32 𝑛𝑖2
on a dark background.  Bracket Series - when electron jumps from higher
 Absorption Spectra: when light is passed through orbits to the fourth orbit. It is in the far IR region.
gas or liquid, some wavelengths will be absent in the 1
= 𝑅𝐻 (
1
−
1
) where 𝑛𝑖 =5,6,7,….
transmitted light, this type of spectra is known as 𝜆 42 𝑛𝑖2

absorption spectra and it contains some dark lines  P-fund Series - when electron jumps from higher
on a bright background. orbits to the fifth orbit. It is in the far IR region.
1 1 1
𝜆
= 𝑅𝐻 (52 − 𝑛𝑖2
) where 𝑛𝑖 =6,7,8,….
Spectral Series of Hydrogen
Bohr’s Atom Model
The spectra have regular pattern consisting of certain Bohr’s atom model can be explained through the following
groups of wavelengths. These groups are known as Spectral three postulates.
series.  The electron in an atom could revolve in
The wavelengths of the emission spectra of hydrogen are certain stable orbits without the emission of
given by Balmer formula. radiant energy.
1 1 1  The electrons revolve around the nucleus only
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 ) in those orbits for which the angular
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
ℎ
where 𝑅𝐻 is Rydberg Constant and is equal to1.097 × momentum is some integral multiple of 2𝜋.
107 𝑚−1. i.e., 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛
ℎ
2𝜋
The spectral series of hydrogen are given below.
 When electron jumps from higher energy orbits
to lower energy orbits, the energy is radiated
as photon whose energy is given by ℎ𝜗 = 𝐸𝑖 −
𝐸𝑓
Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom Energy Levels
Hydrogen atom consists of one electron revolving Bohr predicted the exact energy levels of the
around nucleus having a charge of +e in a circular of orbit electrons in hydrogen as shown below. He also calculated
of radius r. the ionization energy of the ground state and calculated the
Here also, 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑐
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
𝑟
= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑒2
𝑣2 = *refer equation (1) of Rutherford’s
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟
model
From the second postulates of quantization,
ℎ
𝑚𝑟 = 𝑛
2𝜋𝑣
1 𝑒2
Then, 𝑣 2 = ℎ
4𝜋𝜀0 [ 𝑛 ]
2𝜋𝑣
The velocity of electron in the nth orbit,
𝑒2
𝑣𝑛 = 2𝜀 𝑛ℎ …………(3)
0
𝟏
Here, 𝒗𝒏 ∝ 𝒏
1 𝑒2
Also, 𝑟= *refer equation(2) of
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
Rutherford’s model value of Rydberg
constant accurately as 1.03 × 107 𝑚−1 which is in good
Substituting the values of 𝑣 from equation (3), agreement with the theoretical value. This theory is also in
1 𝑒 2 2𝜀0 𝑛ℎ 2 agreement with the observed hydrogen spectra.
𝑟𝑛 = ( 2 ) Limitations of Bohr’s Theory:
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚 𝑒
 It could not explain the relative intensities of hydrogen line
𝜀0 𝑛 2 ℎ 2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
……………..(4) spectra.
𝟐  This theory is applicable only to hydrogen like atoms.
Here, 𝒓𝒏 ∝ 𝒏  It could not explain the further splitting of line spectra.
Also, for n=1,
𝜀0 ℎ2 de Broglie’s Explanation for Bohr’s second Postulate of
𝑟1 = = 5.29 × 10−11 𝑚
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2 Quantization
This is the radius of the first orbit of the hydrogen atom and de Broglie assumed that
is known as Bohr’s radius. an electron orbit would be stable
The total energy of the electron is only if the circumference of the
1 𝑒2 orbit contains an integral multiple
𝐸= − *refer equation(3) of Rutherford’s model
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 of electron wavelength.
i.e., 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
Substituting the equation for orbital radius from equation here λ is the de Broglie wavelength
(2), of electron.
𝑒2 𝜋𝑚𝑒2 ℎ
𝐸𝑛 = − [ ] 𝜆 =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑚𝑣
ℎ
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛
𝑚𝑒4 𝑚𝑣
𝐸𝑛 = − ℎ
8𝑛2 𝜀0 2 ℎ2 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛 = 𝐿
2𝜋
Substituting the values of the constants,
This is the second postulate of quantization.
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 𝑒𝑉 ***
𝑛
𝟏
Here, 𝑬𝒏 ∝ 𝒏𝟐
Using this equation, Bohr predicted the energy of different
states of H- atom which is given below.
 NUCLEI
where c is the velocity of light and is equal to
The nucleus of an atom is so small of the order of 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.
-15
10 m (1fm); but it contains most of the atomic mass 𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟗31.5 MeV
(99.9%). The mass of the nucleus is expressed in the unit of  Mass Defect:
amu and is measure usin atomic mass spectrometer. It is the difference in the actual mass of the
Atomic Mass Unit (amu): nucleus and the total mass of the nucleons.
1 𝑡ℎ
It is defined as (12) of the mass of Carbon atom.
Mass defect, ∆𝑚 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑀
1 u = 1.660539×10-27kg
Constituents of Nucleus where Z is the number of protons
 Protons: Positively charged and stable particles 𝑚𝑝 is the mass of proton
having mass 1.00727 u. (𝐴 − 𝑍) is the number of neutrons
 Neutrons: Neutral particles which are stable inside 𝑚𝑛 is the mass of neutron
nucleus and are unstable in free state. It is M is the actual mass of the nucleus
discovered by Chadwick when he bombarded
e.g., For Oxygen 168O have 8 protons and 8 neutrons.
Beryllium nuclei with α-particles. Mass of the
Total mass of nucleons is 16.12744 u
neutron is 1.00866 u.
Actual mass of nucleus is 15.99493 u
𝑚𝑛 > 𝑚𝑝 ≫ 𝑚𝑒 The mass defect is 16.12744-15.99493= 0.13691u
Representation of Nuclide  Binding Energy, 𝑬𝒃 :
Nuclides are usually represented as 𝑨𝒁𝑿, where X is The energy equivalent of the mass defect is used for
the chemical symbol of nuclide with atomic number Z and binding protons and neutrons inside the nucleus and is
mass number A. known as binding energy.
Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones 𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚 𝑐 2
Isotopes have same atomic number but different  Binding Energy per Nucleon, 𝑬𝒃𝒏 :
mass numbers. They have same chemical properties. It can be calculated as the ratio of binding energy to
e.g., 11𝐻, 21𝐻, 21𝐻 the mass number.
Isobars have same mass number but different 𝐸𝑏
atomic number, they show different chemical behavior. 𝐸𝑏𝑛 =
𝐴
e.g., 146𝐶 , 147𝑁 *Larger the 𝐸𝑏𝑛 , more stable will be the nucleus.
Isotones have different mass number and different  Variation of 𝑬𝒃𝒏 with Mass Number A:
atomic number but same number of neutrons.
e.g., 198 197
80𝐻𝑔, 79𝐴𝑢
Size of the Nucleus
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment predicted that
nucleus has the radius of the order of 1fm. Also, it is found
that the radius of the nucleus,
1
𝑅 = 𝑅0 (𝐴)3
−15
where 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10 𝑚 and A is the mass number.
Density of the Nucleus
The nuclear density is constant and is equal to
2. 3 × 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
 The 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is almost constant for nuclei whose mass
Mass – Energy Relation and the Nuclear Binding number is 30<A<170.
Energy The maximum value of 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is for 56𝐹𝑒 and is equal
to 8.75 MeV.
 Mass- Energy Equivalence Relation:
 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is low for lighter nuclei A<30 and for Heavier
According to Einstein, mass can be
nuclei A>170. For 238
92𝑈, 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is 7.6 MeV.
converted in to energy according to the relation,
 There are narrow spikes in the curve.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Conclusions: 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
 The nuclear binding force is attractive and The law of radioactivity can also states that the
sufficiently strong. number of undecayed nuclei decreases exponentially
 The nuclear force is short range. Nucleons attract with time.
only their immediate neighbours. Hence, nuclear
force is said to be saturated. This is why 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is
constant over the mass number range 30<A<170.
 When heavier nuclei like 238 92𝑈 undergo fission, 𝐸𝑏𝑛
increases and hence stability increases.
 When lighter nuclei like 11𝐻 undergo fusion, 𝐸𝑏𝑛
increases and hence stability increases.
 The nuclide which have higher 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is more
abundant than other isotopes.
 Nuclear Force:
This is the attractive force which binds nucleons  Solution of the Law of Radioactivity:
inside a nucleus. The law gives,
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
 It is the strongest force in nature. = −𝜆 𝑁 or = −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑁
 It is saturated or short range. Integrating
 It is charge independent. ln 𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑡 + 𝐶
 It is attractive for a distance greater than 0.8fm and To find C, consider 𝑁0 is the number of nuclei
is repulsive for distance lesser than that. initially (at t=0).
The variation of potential energy of two nucleons is 𝑁
ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = −𝜆 𝑡 or ln 𝑁 = − 𝜆 𝑡
given below which confirms the last property. 0
Taking the exponential,
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
 The Decay Rate or Activity:
It is the number of nuclei disintegrating per
unit time and is denoted by R.
𝑑𝑁
𝑅=−
𝑑𝑡
It also holds the relation, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
It’s SI unit is Becquerel. 1Bq=1decay per second
Another unit is curie. 1 Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq
 Half Life, 𝑻𝟏 :
𝟐
It is the time taken by the radioactive material
Radio Activity to disintegrate to half of its initial number.
The unstable nuclei undergo disintegration by 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝑻𝟏 =
emitting either α particle, β particle or a γ ray to be 𝟐 𝝀
stable. This is known as radio activity.  Relation Between 𝑻𝟏 and 𝝀:
𝟐
It is first discovered by Becquerel on the Uranium- 𝑁0
When 𝑡 = 𝑇1 , then 𝑁 = 2
.
Potassium Sulphate. 2

 Law of Radio Active Decay: Then law of radioactivity can be written as

𝑁0 −𝜆𝑇1 𝜆𝑇1
It states that the rate of disintegration is = 𝑁0 𝑒 2 or 2 = 𝑒 2
2
directly proportional to the number of
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,
undisintegrated nuclei at that time. log𝑒 2
𝑑𝑁 𝒅𝑵 log 𝑒 2 = 𝜆𝑇1 or 𝑇1 = 𝜆
𝑑𝑡
∝𝑁 or 𝒅𝒕
= −𝝀 𝑵 2 2
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
where λ is known as disintegration constant or decay 𝑻𝟏 = 𝝀
𝟐
constant.
The solution of above equation is,
  Mean Life or Average Life, τ: p = n + e+ + ν
It is the average of the life of all the nuclei in  Gamma Decay:
the sample. It is also defined as the time taken by the This is an electromagnetic radiation emitted
𝑡ℎ
radioactive material to disintegrate to (1⁄𝑒) of its when the excited nucleus comes back to the ground
initial number. state. They have high penetrating power but low
𝟏 ionizing power and unaffected by electric and
𝝉= magnetic fields..
𝝀
 Relation Between 𝑻𝟏 and 𝝉: During γ decay, both atomic number and
𝟐
𝑁0 mass number remains unaltered.
When 𝑡 = 𝜏, then 𝑁 = .
𝑒 Nuclear Energy
Then law of radioactivity can be written as Nuclear Fission – A heavier nucleus splits into lighter ones
𝑁0
𝑒
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝜏 or 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝜆𝜏 releasing huge amount of energy.
235 1 144 89 1
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get, e.g., 92𝑈 + 0𝑛 = 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛
235 1 133 99 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 = 51𝑆𝑏 + 41𝐾𝑟 + 4 0𝑛
𝟏
1 = 𝜆𝜏 or 𝜏=𝝀
235 1 140 94 1
0.693 92𝑈 + 0𝑛 = 54𝑋𝑒 + 38𝑆𝑟 + 2 0𝑛
Then, 𝑇1 = = 0.693 𝜏
2 𝜆 The energy released per fission of 23592𝑈 is 200MeV
i.e., 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 𝝉 or 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 The neutrons released per fission of 23592𝑈 is 2.5.
𝟐 𝟐
The fraction of undecayed nuclei after n half lives is  Chain Reaction: The extra neutrons produced during
𝒕 fission, may also bombard with nucleus and cause
𝑵 𝟏 𝑻𝟏 𝟏 𝒏 fission which in turn produce more neutrons. This is
=( ) =( )
𝟐
𝑵𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 called chain reaction.
 Alpha Decay: Controlled chain reaction is the principle of nuclear
An α particle is positively charged (+2e) reactor and uncontrolled chain reaction is principle of
particle equivalent to helium nucleus. It has high atom bomb.
ionizing power with low penetrating power.  Nuclear Reactor: Here, controlled chain reaction is
Hence, during α-decay, mass number decreases utilized to produce steady energy output.
by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2.
A A−4
ZX → Z−2Y + He + Q
 Beta Decay:
These particles have moderate ionizing and
penetrating power. It may be of two types.
 β- Decay:
They are equivalent to fast moving
electrons and are negatively charged (-e). During The main components of nuclear reactor are,
β- decay, atomic number increases by 1with  Fuel: This is fissionable material like enriched Uranium
mass number remains unaltered. inside the core.
A A
+ e− + ν̅  Moderator: They are used to slow down fast moving
ZX → Z+1Y
These β- particles are produced inside the neutrons. Heavy water, water and graphite are
nucleus by the disintegration of neutrons. commonly used moderators.
𝑛 = 𝑝 + e− + ν̅  Control Rods: they are used to absorb extra neutrons to
 β+ Decay: control reaction rate (to make multiplication factor
They are equivalent positrons and are unity). Cadmium is usually used.
positively charged (+e). During β+ decay,  Reflectors: to prevent leakage of radiation.
atomic number decreases by 1 with mass  Coolant: It transfer heat from reactor to working
number remains unaltered. substance.
A A  Nuclear Fusion: Lighter nuclei fuse to become heavier
ZX → Z−1Y + e+ + ν
nucleus. Reason for the energy production in stars.
These β+ particles are produced inside the
nucleus by the disintegration of protons.