DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MODULE-3
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 2
Syllabus
Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung physiology -
COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine). Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration,
CKD, dialysis systems). Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering
solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis).

Lungs as Purification System

The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the bloodstream. The process of
purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:
❖ Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in the air,
such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by
the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
❖ Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory tract,
which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
❖ Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where oxygen
diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses in
the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures that
the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon dioxide is removed from
the body.

Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

❖ Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads
from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is lined
with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to
filter out harmful substances and trap them in the
mucus.
❖ Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main
bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are larger
airways that continue to branch into smaller
airways called bronchioles.
❖ Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways
that eventually lead to the alveoli. They are
surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which
are the sites of gas exchange.
❖ Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined
with a network of capillaries. This close proximity of the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.
❖ Diaphragm: Dome-shaped muscle located below lungs, upon inhalation it contracts, which creates a
vacuum and pulls air into the lungs. Upon exhalation, it relaxes and returns to its dome like shape and air
is forced out of the lungs.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GAS EXCHANGE MECHANISM OF LUNG
The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in the alveoli to the
bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the air in the alveoli. This process is
known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than the partial pressure of
oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that causes oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into
the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.
Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher than the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference creates a gradient that causes carbon dioxide to
diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is exhaled.
SPIROMETRY
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by measuring the amount and flow rate of
air that can be exhaled. The test is commonly used to diagnose lung conditions such as asthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in
a given time period. By measuring the volume of air exhaled, spirometry can provide information about the
functioning of the lungs and the ability of the lungs to move air in and out.
Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a mouth pipe, a flow sensor, and
a volume sensor. The patient is asked to take deep breath and exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer.
The spirometer measures the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a
graph called a flow-volume loop, which provides information about the lung function.
Based on the spirometry flow graph produced, the healthiness and abnormality of the lungs determined.
For example, decrease in the volume of air exhaled or a decrease in the flow rate of the exhaled air into the
spirometry indicate restriction in the airways, which can be a sign of a lung problem such as asthma or COPD.
Abnormal Lung Physiology – COPD
Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal functioning of the
respiratory system. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including diseases,
injuries, or genetic conditions.
Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow,
making it difficult to breathe.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease
that makes it hard to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema and
chronic bronchitis.
Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs,
making it difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid buildup in the air sacs.
Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by a blood clot, which can cause
lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.
Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung function by interfering with
normal air flow and oxygen exchange.
Treatment for abnormal lung physiology depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
changes, or surgery.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung diseases that cause breathing
difficulties. It's characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The two main forms of
COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or blocked, leading to difficulty
in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to shortness of breath, wheezing, and
coughing. Over time, these symptoms can get worse and limit a person's ability to perform everyday activities.
The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and dust.
Other risk factors include a history of frequent lung infections, a family history of lung disease, and exposure to
second-hand smoke.
There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
Treatment options include medication, such as bronchodilators and steroids, oxygen therapy, and lung
rehabilitation. In severe cases, surgery may also be an option. In addition, quitting smoking and avoiding
exposure to irritants is crucial in managing COPD.
Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control
breathing in individuals who are unable to breathe
adequately on their own. They are commonly used in the
treatment of acute
respiratory failure, which can occur as a result of a variety
of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
There are several different types of ventilators, including volume-controlled ventilators, pressure-controlled
ventilators, and bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) devices. The type of ventilator used depends on the
patient's individual needs and the type of respiratory failure being treated.
Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a breathing tube or mask. The
pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help maintain adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory failure, they also come with potential
risks and complications. For example, prolonged use of a ventilator can increase the risk of ventilator-associated
pneumonia, and patients may experience discomfort or pain from the breathing tube.
The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare professionals to ensure that the patient
receives the appropriate level of support while minimizing potential risks and complications.
Heart-Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is
a device used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the functions
of the heart and lungs. The heart-lung machine is used during open-heart
surgery, such as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and valve
replacement surgery, to support the patient's circulatory and respiratory
functions while the heart is stopped.
The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body
through a series of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body,

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
oxygenated, and then returned to the body. This allows the heart to be stopped during the surgery without causing
any harm to the patient.
The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery carries some risks, including the potential for blood clots,
bleeding, and infections. Additionally, there may be some long-term effects on the body, such as cognitive
decline, that are not yet fully understood. However, the use of a heart-lung machine has revolutionized the field
of cardiovascular surgery, allowing for more complex procedures to be performed and greatly improving patient
outcomes.
Kidney as a Filtration System
The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration
system for the body. It removes waste and excess fluid
from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of
electrolytes, hormones, and other substances that are
critical for the body's normal functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating
blood pressure by secreting the hormone renin, which
helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the
body. It also regulates red blood cell production and the
levels of various minerals in the blood, such as calcium
and phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would
accumulate in the body, leading to serious health problems.
Architecture of Kidney
Two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist located just below the rib
cage, one on each side of your spine.
Healthy kidneys filter about a half cup of blood every minute, removing wastes
and extra water to make urine.
Composed of functional units called nephrons, basic structural & functional
units.
Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, and each nephron
performs the functions of filtration, reabsorption and secretion.
The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic
structural and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately
one million nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion.
The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
➢ Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus and filters waste and
excess fluid from the bloodstream into the renal tubule.
➢ Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that filters waste and excess
fluid from the bloodstream.
➢ Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important substances, such as
glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
➢ Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the reabsorption of ions and

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
water.
➢ Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of electrolytes and other
important substances in the bloodstream.
➢ Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and transport it to the
renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.
The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent arteriole and the efferent
arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus, respectively. The filtrate produced by the nephron
passes through the renal tubules, where it is modified by reabsorption and secretion, before being eliminated from
the body as urine.
Mechanism of Filtration – Urine Formation
➢ Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering units called glomeruli.
➢ At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and dissolved
substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.
➢ In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules, which are the main filtering
units of the kidneys.
➢ In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells, such as proximal tubular cells
and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb important substances such as glucose, amino acids, and
electrolytes back into the bloodstream.
➢ At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back into the
filtrate.
➢ Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and ureters to the
bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.
This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper balance of fluids and
electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess substances.
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
CKD stands for chronic kidney disease. It is a long-term condition in which the kidneys gradually become less
able to function properly. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and
other health problems that damage the kidneys.
Symptoms of CKD include fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, and difficulty concentrating.
As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious complications, such as anemia, nerve damage, and an
increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and exercising regularly, as well
as medications to manage symptoms and underlying health conditions. In severe cases, kidney transplant or
dialysis may be necessary.
It is important for individuals with risk factors for CKD to get regular check-ups and to talk to their doctor about
how to best manage their condition.
Dialysis Systems
Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood when the kidneys are
unable to function properly. There are two main types of dialysis systems: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During hemodialysis, blood is removed from
the body, passed through a dialysis machine that filters out waste and excess fluids, and then returned to the body.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Hemodialysis typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis center, and is typically performed three times a week
for three to four hours at a time.
Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the peritoneum, to filter waste
and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is introduced into the abdomen, where it absorbs waste and
excess fluids, and is then drained and replaced with fresh solution. Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at home
and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.
Both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis can effectively treat the symptoms of kidney failure, but each has its
own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of dialysis system depends on various factors such as the
individual's overall health, lifestyle, and personal preferences.

Hemodialysis Peritonialdialysis dialysis

Muscular Systems as Scaffolds
The use of muscular systems as scaffolds in regenerative medicine is an area of active research and development.
Muscles have the potential to be used as scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues due to their inherent mechanical
properties and ability to support cell growth and tissue formation.
One example of using muscular systems as scaffolds is in the treatment of damaged or diseased heart tissue.
Researchers have developed methods for using muscle cells to create a functional, three-dimensional scaffold that
can support the growth of new heart tissue. In this approach, muscle cells are harvested from the patient and then
seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to
grow and differentiate into new heart tissue, which can help to repair the damaged or diseased tissue.
Architecture of Muscular Systems
Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles,
called fascicles, surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue
called the perimysium. This fascicular organization is common in
muscles of the limbs; it allows the nervous system to trigger a specific
movement of a muscle by activating a subset of muscle fibers within a
fascicle of the muscle. Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is
encased in a thin connective tissue layer of collagen and reticular fibers
called the endomysium. The endomysium surrounds the extracellular
matrix of the cells and plays a role in transferring force produced by
the muscle fibers to the tendons.
Inside the muscle fibers, there are tiny structures called myofibrils.
Myofibrils are made up of smaller units called sarcomeres, which are responsible for muscle contraction.
Sarcomeres contain thin (Actin) and thick filaments (Myosin) that work together to make the muscle fibers
contract. Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a protective layer called endomysium.

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Mechanisms
The mechanism of how the muscular system can be used as a scaffold in regenerative medicine involves the use
of muscle cells and a scaffold to support the growth and regeneration
of new tissue.
The basic steps in this process are as follows:
• Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically
obtained from the patient and then isolated and expanded in
culture.
• Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto
a scaffold, such as a hydrogel or artificial matrix. The
scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and
differentiate into new tissue.
• Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are
seeded onto the scaffold, they undergo differentiation, in
which they change into specific cell types, such as muscle
cells or heart cells. The cells also begin to organize and form
new tissue, such as heart tissue or skeletal muscle tissue.
• Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then
implanted into the patient to promote the growth of new,
functional tissue.
Bioengineering Solutions for Muscular Dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive weakness and degeneration of the
skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement. The disorders are caused by mutations in genes that
encode proteins needed for muscle function. The most common type of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne
muscular dystrophy, which typically affects young boys and leads to severe disability by early adulthood. Other
forms of the disease include Becker muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, etc,,
➢ Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or mutated gene to the affected
muscle cells. The goal is to restore the production of the missing protein and improve muscle function.
➢ Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle cells and promote repair
and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the patient's own body (autologous
stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
➢ Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as robotic exoskeletons, to support
and enhance the movement of individuals with muscular dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors
to mimic the movements of the wearer and help improve mobility.
➢ Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as scaffolds and growth factors,
to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue. The goal is to create functional muscle tissue that can
replace the damaged tissue in individuals with muscular dystrophy.
Skeletal Systems as Scaffolds
The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones, joints, and connective tissues that provide
structure, support, and protection to the body.
The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:

Department of Chemistry SVIT

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape. Bones are composed of hard and
dense connective tissue that provides strength and support. They serve as the anchor points for muscles, protect
internal organs, and store minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and structures such as the ears and nose.
It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock.
Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect bones to other bones in joints, providing
stability and preventing excessive movement.
Tendons: Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones, enabling movement by transmitting
the force generated by muscles.
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the skull, vertebral column,
and ribcage. The skull protects the brain, and the vertebral column (spine) supports the body's weight and houses
the spinal cord. The ribcage encloses and protects the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.

The skeletal system can be used as a scaffold for tissue growth in certain applications. Scaffold-based tissue
engineering is a field that aims to create artificial scaffolds to support the growth and regeneration of tissues and
organs. In some cases, the natural structure of the skeletal system can serve as a scaffold or template for tissue
engineering purposes.
Solutions for Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens the bones and makes them
more likely to break (fracture), especially the bones in the hip, spine,
and wrist. It occurs when the body loses bone mass and density more
quickly than it can be replaced, leading to fragile bones that are prone
to fracture.
Osteoporosis is a common condition, especially among older women,
and it can increase the risk of falls and fractures, which can result in
significant pain and disability. Risk factors for osteoporosis include being female, older age, having a family
history of the condition, smoking, drinking excessive amounts of alcohol, being thin or having a small body
frame, and having a low calcium intake.
Treatment for osteoporosis aims to slow down bone loss, prevent fractures, and treat fractures if they occur. Some
of the treatments include:
➢ Medications: Bisphosphonates, denosumab, and teriparatide are some of the medications that can slow

Department of Chemistry SVIT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY - SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
down bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures.
➢ Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation: Calcium and Vitamin D are essential for healthy bones, and
taking supplements can help maintain bone mass.
➢ Exercise: Weight-bearing and resistance exercises can help improve bone density and reduce the risk of
fractures.
➢ Lifestyle changes: Quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and eating a healthy diet that
includes enough calcium and Vitamin D can help maintain healthy bones.
Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis
➢ Tissue engineering: This involves using scaffolds and growth factors to stimulate the growth of new bone
tissue and promote the repair of damaged bones. The goal is to create functional bone tissue that can
replace the lost bone mass and density in individuals with osteoporosis.
➢ Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged bone cells and promote the
repair and regeneration of bone tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the patient's own body (autologous
stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
➢ Biomaterials: This involves using synthetic or natural materials to replace or augment damaged bone
tissue. Biomaterials can be designed to mimic the properties of natural bone and promote the growth of
new bone tissue.
➢ Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of a gene involved in bone growth and repair to
the affected bone cells. The goal is to restore the production of the missing protein and improve bone
health.

Department of Chemistry SVIT