Information Technology in Business

Paavendhar College of Arts & Science ,M.V.South

Depatment of Computer Science

Subject Name : Information Technology in Business Class: III-B.Com

UNIT – I

Introduction to computers : Introduction to computers - Characteristics of computers –

Classification of computers - uses of computers – Components of a computer – input devices
– output devices.

UNIT – II

Hardware and Software: Computer main memory- Auxiliary storage Devices – Computer
Software – Classification of software m- operating systems – Functions and Classifications –
programming Language

UNIT – III

Data Processing : Data Processing- Database management systems - components of a DBMS

– Types of DBMS – Functions of DBMS- Computer networks – Types of network – Network
topology

UNIT – IV

Internet Access : Internet Access – Internet protocol – Internet Addressing- www-Internet

Relay chat- E Mail - Mailing Basics – E mail Ethics- Introduction to multimedia- multimedia
tools.

UNIT – V

E-Commerce: E-Commerce- Classification of E- Commerce- System analysis and Design-

Life cycle- mobile commerce – Business on the internet – E-Commerce applications in various
industries like banking, insurance, payment of bills- etailing( popularity, benefits, problem
and features) – online services (financial , travel and career) – online learning- online shopping
(amazon, snapdeal, Alibaba and flipkart etc)

TEXT BOOK
Introduction to information technology- Alexis leon, methews leon, ,2013

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Unit: I
Computer:
An electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form and
of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined but variable set of
procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the form of information or signals.

Characteristics of computer:

High Speed

• Computer is a very fast device.

• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy

• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability

• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence

• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

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Versatility

• A computer is a very versatile machine.

• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

• A computer is a reliable machine.

• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

• Computer is an automatic machine.

• Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.

Uses of Computers:
Computers are used to control large and small machines which in the past were controlled by
humans. They are also in homes, where they are used for things such as listening to music,
reading the news, and writing. Modern computers are electronic computer hardware.

Classification Of Computer:

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Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.

1.Purpose:

Computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General purpose computers are
designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but
lack in speed and efficiency.

Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a

specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.

2.Data handling:

Computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers work on the principle of measuring,
in which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually
employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the
quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers. They
measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are those that operate with
information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process
data into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster
rate. Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting
feature of a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use analog
components and for storage, digital memories are used.

3. Functionality:

Type of computers :

Analog Computer

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
the problem being solved.

Digital Computer

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A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations.

On the basis of Size: Type of Computer

Super Computer

The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe
uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

Mainframe Computer

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for
example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe.

Mini Computer

A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and

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workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting

from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It
is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.

• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops

have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term
for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."

Components of a Computer:

Operation Description
1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert
3 Processing Data
them into useful information.
Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
4
Information as a printed report or visual display.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics.

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1.Input:This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You
should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as
inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input
unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2.Storage:The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data
has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing
speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with
the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and
processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do
the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is
called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of
data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It
takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

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FUNCTIONAL UNITS :

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates
the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate
units for its operation. They are

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage
unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical
Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.
After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting
stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co ordinating various
operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer
to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as
they perform the input and output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit.
You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major
decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions
by activating and controlling the operations.

Input devices:

An input device is a piece of computer hardware equipment used to provide data and

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control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or information

appliance.

Ex: keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.

Input devices can be categorized based on:

• Modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)

• Whether the input is discrete (e.g. pressing of key) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's
position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered
continuous)
• The number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or
three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications)

Keyboard

Keyboards' are a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons.

Each button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call
upon a particular function of the computer (the keys are assigned for definite commands which
is processed by the CU (Control Unit -- a part of CPU).

They act as the main text entry interface for most users. Traditional keyboards use
spring-based buttons, though newer variations employ virtual keys, or even projected
keyboards. It is typewriter like device composed of a matrix of switches.

Ex:

• Lighted Program Function Keyboard (LPFK)

Pointing device

Pointing devices are the most commonly used input devices

today. A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a
user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mouse and
touchpads, this is usually achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface.

Analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting

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their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by
movements of the pointer, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's graphical
user interface (GUI).

Ex

• mouse,touchpad,pointing stick,touchscreen,trackball

Composite devices

Input devices, such as buttons and joysticks, can be

combined on a single physical device that could be thought of as a
composite device. Many gaming devices have controllers like this.
Technically mice are composite devices, as they both track movement and provide buttons for
clicking, but composite devices are generally considered to have more than two different forms
of input.

Examples

• Joystick controller
• Gamepad (or joypad)
• Paddle (game controller)
• Jog dial/shuttle (or knob)

Video input device

Microsoft Kinect sensor seen here on a TV, works by detecting human

motion visually

Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the
outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats
depending on the user's requirement.

Examples

• Digital camera
• Digital camcorder

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• Image scanner
• Barcode reader

Punched paper

Punched cards and punched tapes were much used in the 20th century. A punched hole
represented a one; its absence represented a zero. There were mechanical and optical readers.
The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabyte). One
KB is equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1000KB. The size of the primary storage in
a typical PC usually starts at 16MB. PCs having 32 MB, 48MB, 8 MB, 256MB memory are
quite common.
Output device:
An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or
user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video.

• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word
help.

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A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

• Large in Size
• High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You
can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-
panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics
display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device).

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers

• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

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Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed
on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

• Very low consumable costs

• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

• Character printers
• Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

One of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed

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Disadvantages

• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP,Noisy

• More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.

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One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

Disadvantages

• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers

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• They are not noisy

• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many
styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some
models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

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• Expensive as the cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer

UNIT 2

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories.

• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.

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• Faster than secondary memories.

• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power
System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small,
both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data
it can hold.

RAM is of two types :

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

• Long life,No need to refresh

• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size,Expensive
• High power consumption

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime

• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

Auxiliary Storage Devices:

Auxiliary storage units behave in a manner similar to other I/O devices, but users do
not interact directly with them. If you were to place yourself inside the computer, in many ways
you would not be able to distinguish among the various kinds of I/O equipment. Auxiliary
storage equipment has data transmission rates that may be significantly higher than other I/O
devices but are still much slower than the internal speeds of the processor

Auxiliary storage serves two main purposes: it serves as an extension of the main
memory or as a medium to permanently archive information.

Sequential Access – Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape has traditionally been one of the most important means of supplying
auxiliary storage for information processing systems. A reel of tape or cassette is mounted on
a tape drive and can be moved at relatively high speed under the read/ write head. Reading and
recording take place much like the familiar voice tape recorder. Large computing systems have
reels of tape one-half-inch wide and up to twenty-four hundred feet in length.

The capacity of the tape depends not only on the tape's length, but also on how many

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bits can be stored per inch, or the density. Common densities for the half-inch tapes are 1,600
and 6,250 bits per inch (bpi). This is actually the density per track; thus, bpi may also mean
bytes per inch or characters per inch (cpi).

Speeds of several hundred inches per second mean that several million characters per second
move past the read/write heads (6,250 bytes/inch x 200 inches/second = 1.25
megabytes/second). This is known as the transmission rate. High-density tapes can store
several hundred million characters of information.

Reading from or writing to the tape takes place in units called physical records. The
size of the records must be consistent with the physical parameters of the tape drive and
computer system, such as the transmission rate and the amount of main memory available to
store the data before it is processed. Special characters may be used to show the boundaries of
the record.

Direct Access Storage Devices

The direct access storage device (DASD) permits the on-line storage of vast amounts of data,
making possible many of our familiar applications today. Magnetic drums and disks have been
the mainstay for DASD systems for the past several decades.

Disk

Disk storage devices are by far the most popular of the DASD systems. Magnetic disk,
like magnetic drum storage, provides the computing system with the ability to read or retrieve
data sequentially or directly. The magnetic disk is a flat platter with magnetic oxide coated on
the surface.

The capacity or density of the disk is determined by how closely the tracks are placed
together and how closely the bits are packed. The data transmission speed depends on the
density and how fast the disk is spinning under the read/write head.

Optical Disks

In the rapidly changing world of computing, it is hard to predict what new technologies
will be developed and what their impact will be. Just as magnetic bubble memory seemed to

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be the answer for the next generation of auxiliary storage devices in the 1970s, optical disk
units seem to hold great promise in the 1980s and is still widely used. The optical disk can store
incredible amounts of data.

Computer Software:

Software refers to a set of programs which is capable of performing some specific tasks
on a computer system. They can be broadly classified into two categories - System software
and Application software.

Software refers to computer programs which perform

specific functions as instructed. It can be a single program
or may refer to a number of programs collectively. These
instructions are defined in proper step by step manner. It is
important to mention that hardware becomes incapable for
extending its capabilities without support of the software.
These software programs assist computer systems and network to start and work.

There are two types of software

• System Software
• Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
etc.

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Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software

• Close to the system

• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following :

• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
• Railways Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel

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• Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

• Close to the user

• Easy to design
• More interactive,Slow in speed
• Generally written in high-level language
• Easy to understand
• Easy to manipulate and use
• Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Operating System:

• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware.
• It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.
• It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system
software.

Objectives of Operating System

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The objectives of the operating system:

• To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.

• To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
• To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
• To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the
users to access and use other resources.
• To manage the resources of a computer system.
• To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
• To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System:

• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Job Accounting
• Control Over System Performance

Functions of Operating System:

1. Booting

Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the computer to work. It
checks the computer and makes it ready to work.

2. Memory Management

It is also an important function of operating system. The memory cannot be managed without
operating system. Different programs and data execute in memory at one time. if there is no
operating system, the programs may mix with each other. The system will not work properly.

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3. Loading and Execution

A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed. Operating system provides the
facility to load programs in memory easily and then execute it.

4. Data Security

Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the data stored
on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion.

5. Disk Management

Operating system manages the disk space. It manages the stored files and folders in a proper
way.

6. Process Management

CPU can perform one task at one time. if there are many tasks, operating system decides which
task should get the CPU.

7. Device Controlling

operating system also controls all devices attached to computer. The hardware devices are
controlled with the help of small software called device drivers.

8. Printing Controlling

Operating system also controls printing function. It a user issues two print commands at a time,
it does not mix data of these files and prints them separately.

9. Providing Interface

It is used in order that user interface acts with a computer mutually. User interface controls
how you input data and instruction and how information is displayed on screen. The operating
system offers two types of the interface to the user;

Graphical-line interface: It interacts with of visual environment to communicate with

the computer. It uses windows, icons, menus and other graphical objects to issues commands.

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Command-line interface: it provides an interface to communicate with the computer by

typing commands.

Classifications Of OS:

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follow

• Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

• CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.
• Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction

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processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with
a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems
have been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages

• Provides the advantage of quick response.

• Avoids duplication of software.
• Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages

• Problem of reliability.
• Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
• Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

advantages

• With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
• Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
• If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.

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• Better service to the customers.

• Reduction of the load on the host computer.
• Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary
purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among
multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to
other networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

Advantages

• Centralized servers are highly stable.

• Security is server managed.
• Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
• Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

Disadvantages

• High cost of buying and running a server.

• Dependency on a central location for most operations.
• Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by
the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the
response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.

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Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Programming Language:

Programming languages, according to The Other Wiki, describes programs. Basically

any task that was meant for calculating, controlling the behavior of the machine directly, or
offering a human-friendly interface.

A programming language has four basic elements to it:

• Symbols to hold data.

• Operators that modify the data.
• Conditional statements that control the flow of the program.
• The ability to jump around in the program at will.

Programs are written into source files, which can be compiled or assembled for later
execution, or interpreted for execution right away. If there's something immediately wrong

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with the source file, the compiler, assembler, or interpreter will complain until it's fixed.

Low Level Languages

At its heart, a computer is a giant calculator that computes arithmetic billions of times
per second. All of its constituent parts, from memory to modem to monitor to mouse, has an
alphanumerical address associated with it. The computer uses these addresses to route data
throughout itself. Hence, the earliest computer languages evolved to reflect how computers
fundamentally worked. An extraordinarily simple instruction might be "Take the number stored
at memory address X and subtract it from the number stored at memory address Y, then send
it to the printer located at hardware address Z".
Low level languages use hardware-specific instructions to talk directly to the computer
this way.
A programmer can write a low level source code in two ways:

• Machine code: The most barebone programming ever. This is literally writing the 0's
and 1's or more commonly their hexadecimal equivalents. There's usually two portions
to a machine code, the operation code (opcode), which is the instruction, and the
operand(s), which is the datum or data that act on this instruction. Computers until The
'50s had to be programmed like this.
• Assembly code: The next step in the language development introduced in The
'50s. Opcodes and some special operands are now given more human readable
mnemonics but often kept to very abbreviated words.
• The reason for using low level languages is for maximum performance and
maximum flexibility. The code that's written is directly talking to hardware and the
programmer has full access (barring specific security features) to the hardware. The
trade off is that it's very easy to write code that breaks the system in software and a lack
of portability.

It's unusual these days to write assembly code by hand, because compilers have gotten
so good at optimizing slightly higher-level languages like C. So languages are sometimes
termed "low-level" because they give you a lot of control over how the assembly code turns
out

High Level Languages

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High level languages translate assembly code into something easily human-readable
and automate the more mind-numbing parts. For example, you could write "x = 2" instead of
"MOV x, 2" or "for(5: Array)" instead of manually looping through instructions. However, this
sacrifices performance and (arguably) flexibility because the computer must parse the
instructions and translate them into machine code. Some high level languages are dubbed mid
level languages, meaning the language is closer to assembly. A mid level language can directly
manipulate the computer's memory and input/output devices. Higher level languages are
instead sealed off from the hardware and must interface with a program (usually the part of an
operating system called the kernel) written in a mid level or low level language that then
interacts with the hardware and memory.
Source files can be executed in three different ways:

• Ahead Of Time Compiling (AOT): This turns the source code into an executable that
can be loaded into memory and ran without further processing. This has the fastest
execution time, but can limit your software distribution if you need to have it run on
other architectures.
• Just-in-Time Compiling (JIT): Another program or framework is run that compiles
some of the source code into executable code for the computer architecture when it's
needed (hence, just-in-time). While it can be as fast as AOT and can run on more
platforms, assuming the JIT framework is available for it, it's usually more resource
intensive.
• Interpreting: This will turn the source code into executable code essentially line by
line. While it's quite slow and resource hungry, it can be run as is.

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Unit 3

Data Processing

Collection, manipulation, and processing collected data for the required use is known as data
processing. It is a technique normally performed by a computer; the process includes retrieving,
transforming, or classification of information.

However, the processing of data largely depends on the following:

• The volume of data that need to be processed

• The complexity of data processing operations
• Capacity and inbuilt technology of respective computer system
• Technical skills
• Time constraints

Methods of Data Processing

Let us now discuss the different methods of data processing.

• Single user programming

• Multiple programming
• Real-time processing
• On-line processing
• Time sharing processing
• Distributed processing

Single User Programming

It is usually done by a single person for his personal use. This technique is suitable even for
small offices.

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Multiple Programming

This technique provides facility to store and execute more than one program in the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) simultaneously. Further, the multiple programming technique increases
the overall working efficiency of the respective computer.

Real-time Processing

This technique facilitates the user to have

direct contact with the computer system.
This technique eases data processing.
This technique is also known as the direct
mode or the interactive mode technique
and is developed exclusively to perform
one task. It is a sort of online processing,
which always remains under execution.

On-line Processing

This technique facilitates the entry and execution of data directly; so, it does not store or
accumulate first and then process. The technique is developed in such a way that reduces the
data entry errors, as it validates data at various points and also ensures that only corrected data
is entered. This technique is widely used for online applications.

Time-sharing Processing

This is another form of online data processing that facilitates several users to share the
resources of an online computer system. This technique is adopted when results are needed
swiftly. Moreover, as the name suggests, this system is time based.

Advantages of time-sharing processing :

• Several users can be served simultaneously

• All the users have almost equal amount of processing time
• There is possibility of interaction with the running programs

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Distributed Processing

This is a specialized data processing technique in which various computers (which are located
remotely) remain interconnected with a single host computer making a network of computer.

All these computer systems remain interconnected with a high speed communication network.
This facilitates in the communication between computers. However, the central computer
system maintains the master data base and monitors .

Database Management System

Storing and retrieving users data with utmost efficiency along with appropriate security
measures.

Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can be
processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based on
facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then conclude
about toppers and average marks.

A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information.

Characteristics

• Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to
design its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too.
• Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form
tables. A user can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table
names.
• Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely different than its
data. A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the
database works and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data,
to ease its own process.

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• Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation
when any of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a
mathematically rich and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.
• Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains
consistent. There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving
database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared
to earlier forms of data storing applications like file-processing systems.
• Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more
efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different
filtering options as required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible
where file-processing system was used.
• ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on
transactions, which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database
stay healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.
• Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user environment and
allows them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on
transactions when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always
unaware of them.
• Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the
Sales department will have a different view of database than a person working in the
Production department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of the
database according to their requirements.
• Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are
unable to access data of other users and departments.

Users

A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for different
purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up.

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• Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for

administrating the database. They are responsible to look after its usage and by whom
it should be used. They create access profiles for users and apply limitations to maintain
isolation and force security. Administrators also look after DBMS resources like system
license, required tools, and other software and hardware related maintenance.
• Designers − Designers are the group of people who actually work on the designing part
of the database. They keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what
format. They identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, and
views.
• End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS.
End users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates
to sophisticated users such as business analysts.

Components of DBMS

• DBMS have several components, each performing very significant tasks in the database
management system environment. Below is a list of components within the database
and its environment.
• Software
This is the set of programs used to control and manage the overall database. This
includes the DBMS software itself, the Operating System, the network software being
used to share the data among users, and the application programs used to access data in
the DBMS.
• Hardware
Consists of a set of physical electronic devices such as computers, I/O devices, storage
devices, etc., this provides the interface between computers and the real world systems.
• Data
DBMS exists to collect, store, process and access data, the most important component.
The database contains both the actual or operational data and the metadata.
• Procedures
These are the instructions and rules that assist on how to use the DBMS, and in
designing and running the database, using documented procedures, to guide the users
that operate and manage it.
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• Database Access Language

This is used to access the data to and from the database, to enter new data, update
existing data, or retrieve required data from databases. The user writes a set of
appropriate commands in a database access language, submits these to the DBMS,
which then processes the data and generates and displays a set of results into a user
readable form.
• Query Processor
This transforms the user queries into a series of low level instructions. This reads the
online user’s query and translates it into an efficient series of operations in a form
capable of being sent to the run time data manager for execution.
• Run Time Database Manager
Sometimes referred to as the database control system, this is the central software
component of the DBMS that interfaces with user-submitted application programs and
queries, and handles database access at run time. Its function is to convert operations in
user’s queries. It provides control to maintain the consistency, integrity and security of
the data.
• Data Manager
Also called the cache manger, this is responsible for handling of data in the database,
providing a recovery to the system that allows it to recover the data after a failure.
• Database Engine
The core service for storing, processing, and securing data, this provides controlled
access and rapid transaction processing to address the requirements of the most
demanding data consuming applications. It is often used to create relational databases
for online transaction processing or online analytical processing data.
• Data Dictionary
This is a reserved space within a database used to store information about the database
itself. A data dictionary is a set of read-only table and views, containing the different
information about the data used in the enterprise to ensure that database representation
of the data follow one standard as defined in the dictionary.
• Report Writer
Also referred to as the report generator, it is a program that extracts information from
one or more files and presents the information in a specified format. Most report writers
allow the user to select records that meet certain conditions and to display selected
fields in rows and columns, or also format the data into different charts.

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Functions Of DBMS:

(i)Data Storage Management: It provides a mechanism for management of permanent storage

of the data. The internal schema defines how the data should be stored by the storage
management mechanism and the storage manager interfaces with the operating system to
access the physical storage.

(ii) Data Manipulation Management: A DBMS furnishes users with the ability to retrieve,
update and delete existing data in the database.

(iii) Data Definition Services: The DBMS accepts the data definitions such as external
schema, the conceptual schema, the internal schema, and all the associated mappings in source
form.

(iv) Data Dictionary/System Catalog Management: The DBMS provides a data dictionary
or system catalog function in which descriptions of data items are stored and which is
accessible to users.

(v) Database Communication Interfaces: The end-user's requests for database access are
transmitted to DBMS in the form of communication messages.

(vi) Authorization / Security Management: The DBMS protects the database against
unauthorized access, either international or accidental. It furnishes mechanism to ensure that
only authorized users an access the database.

{vii) Backup and Recovery Management: The DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up
data periodically and recovering from different types of failures. This prevents the loss of data,

(viii) Concurrency Control Service: Since DBMSs support sharing of data among multiple
users, they must provide a mechanism for managing concurrent access to the database. DBMSs
ensure that the database kept in consistent state and that integrity of the data is preserved.

(ix) Transaction Management: A transaction is a series of database operations, carried out by

a single user or application program, which accesses or changes the contents of the database.
Therefore, a DBMS must provide a mechanism to ensure either that all the updates
corresponding to a given transaction are made or that none of them is made.

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(x) Database Access and Application Programming Interfaces: All DBMS provide
interface to enable applications to use DBMS services. They provide data access via Structured
Query Language (SQL). The DBMS query language contains two components: (a) a Data
Definition Language (DDL) and (b) a Data Manipulation Language (DML).

Types of DBMS:

There are several types of database management systems. Here is a list of seven common
database management systems:

1. Hierarchical databases
2. Network databases
3. Relational databases
4. Object-oriented databases
5. Graph databases
6. ER model databases
7. Document databases

Hierarchical Databases

In a hierarchical database management systems (hierarchical DBMSs) model, data is stored in

a parent-children relationship nodes. In a hierarchical database, besides actual data, records
also contain information about their groups of parent/child relationships.

In a hierarchical database model, data is organized into a tree like structure. The data is stored
in form of collection of fields where each field contains only one value. The records are linked
to each other via links into a parent-children relationship. In a hierarchical database model,
each child record has only one parent. A parent can have multiple children.

To retrieve a field’s data, we need to traversed through each tree until the record is found.

The IBM Information Management System (IMS) and Windows Registry are two popular
examples of hierarchical databases.

Advantage

Hierarchical database can be accessed and updated rapidly because in this model structure is

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like as a tree and the relationships between records are defined in advance. This feature is a
two-edged.

Disadvantage

This type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have only one parent, and
relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if they make sense from a
logical standpoint. Hierarchical databases are so in their design. it can adding a new field or
record requires that the entire database be redefined.

Network Databases

Network database management systems (Network DBMSs) use a network structure to create
relationship between entities. Network databases are mainly used on a large digital computers.
Network databases are hierarchical databases but unlike hierarchical databases where one node
can have one parent only, a network node can have relationship with multiple entities. A
network database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network of records.

In network databases, children are called members and parents are called occupier. The
difference between each child or member can have more than one parent.

Relational Databases

In relational database management systems (RDBMS), the relationship between data is

relational and data is stored in tabular form of columns and rows. Each column if a table
represents an attribute and each row in a table represents a record. Each field in a table
represents a data value.

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a the language used to query a RDBMS including
inserting, updating, deleting, and searching records.

Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each row, and
that these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.

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Relational databases are the most popular and widely used databases. Some of the popular
DDBMS are Oracle, SQL Server, MySQL, SQLite, and IBM DB2.

The relational database has two major reasons

1. Relational databases can be used with little or no training.

2. Database entries can be modified without specify the entire body.

Properties of Relational Tables

In the relational database we have to follow some properties which are given below.

• It's Values are Atomic

• In Each Row is alone.
• Column Values are of the Same thing.
• Columns is undistinguished.
• Sequence of Rows is Insignificant.
• Each Column has a common Name.

Object-Oriented Model

In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming. It takes
more than storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's increase the semantics of
the C++ and Java.I t provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing
native language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming
languages

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Object-oriented databases use small, recyclable separated of software called objects. The
objects themselves are stored in the object-oriented database. Each object contains of two
elements:

1. Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics).

2. Instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data.

Object-oriented database management systems (OODBMs) were created in early 1980s. Some
OODBMs were designed to work with OOP languages such as Delphi, Ruby, C++, Java, and
Python. Some popular OODBMs are TORNADO, Gemstone, ObjectStore, GBase, VBase,
InterSystems Cache, Versant Object Database, ODABA, ZODB, Poet. JADE, and Informix.

Disadvantage of Object-oriented databases

1. Object-oriented databases have these disadvantages.

2. Object-oriented database are more expensive to develop.
3. In the Most organizations are unwilling to abandon and convert from those databases.

Benefits of Object-oriented databases

The benefits to object-oriented databases are compelling. The ability to mix and match reusable
objects provides incredible multimedia capability.

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Graph Databases

Graph Databases are NoSQL databases and use a graph structure for sematic queries. The data
is stored in form of nodes, edges, and properties. In a graph database, a Node represent an entity
or instance such as customer, person, or a car. A node is equivalent to a record in a relational
database system. An Edge in a graph database represents a relationship that connects nodes.
Properties are additional information added to the nodes.

ER Model Databases

An ER model is typically implemented as a database. In a simple relational database

implementation, each row of a table represents one instance of an entity type, and each field in
a table represents an attribute type. In a relational database a relationship between entities is
implemented by storing the primary key of one entity as a pointer or "foreign key" in the table
of another entity.

Document Databases

Document databases (Document DB) are also NoSQL database that store data in form of
documents. Each document represents the data, its relationship between other data elements,
and attributes of data. Document database store data in a key value form.

Popular NoSQL databases are Hadoop/Hbase, Cassandra, Hypertable, MapR, Hortonworks,

Cloudera, Amazon SimpleDB, Apache Flink, IBM Informix, Elastic, MongoDB, and Azure
DocumentDB.

Computer networks:

There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be
characterized by their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the
number of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful
of devices within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.

Different Types of networks

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• Personal area network, or PAN

• Local area network, or LAN
• Metropolitan area network, or MAN
• Wide area network, or WAN

In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are
used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of
networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different networks based on
their main purpose are:

• Storage area network, or SAN

• Enterprise private network, or EPN
• Virtual private network, or VPN

Let's look at each of these in a bit more detail.

Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an

individual person within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A
typical PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game
consoles and other personal entertainment devices.

If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the network is
sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a residence
will have a single wired Internet connection connected to a modem.

This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:

• Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch
with your laptop.
• Upload a photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
• Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

If this sounds familiar to you, you likely have a PAN in your house without having called it by
its name.

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Local Area Network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site,

typically an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as
data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as
hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an

entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically
limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can
cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several
LANs together to form a bigger network.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country
or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs.
The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various

nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

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Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables
together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are
more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because
if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

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2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep
the network up.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

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2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.

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2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

UNIT 4:

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Internet Access

Internet access is the ability of individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet
using computer terminals, computers , other devices and to access services such as email and
the World Wide Web.

Internet Access Methods:

1.Dial-Up Connection
2.Isdn 3.Satellite Connection
4.Dsl 5.Cable Modem
6.Wi-Fi
7.Wlan
8.Wimax

Internet Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a connection oriented protocol and offers end-to-end packet delivery. It acts as back
bone for connection.It exhibits the following key features:

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI

Model.
• TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.
• TCP offers:
o Stream Data Transfer.
o Reliability.
o Efficient Flow Control
o Full-duplex operation.
o Multiplexing.
• TCP offers connection oriented end-to-end packet delivery.
• TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgement
number that indicates to the destination the next byte the source expect to receive.
• It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in specified time period.

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TCP Services

TCP offers following services to the processes at the application layer:

• Stream Delivery Service

• Sending and Receiving Buffers
• Bytes and Segments
• Full Duplex Service
• Connection Oriented Service
• Reliable Service

Stream Deliver Service

TCP protocol is stream oriented because it allows the sending process to send data as stream
of bytes and the receiving process to obtain data as stream of bytes.

Sending and Receiving Buffers

It may not be possible for sending and receiving process to produce and obtain data at same
speed, therefore, TCP needs buffers for storage at sending and receiving ends.

Bytes and Segments

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), at transport layer groups the bytes into a packet.
This packet is called segment. Before transmission of these packets, these segments are
encapsulated into an IP datagram.

Full Duplex Service

Transmitting the data in duplex mode means flow of data in both the directions at the same
time.

Connection Oriented Service

TCP offers connection oriented service in the following manner:

1. TCP of process-1 informs TCP of process – 2 and gets its approval.

2. TCP of process – 1 and TCP of process – 2 and exchange data in both the two directions.

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3. After completing the data exchange, when buffers on both sides are empty, the two
TCP’s destroy their buffers.

Reliable Service

For sake of reliability, TCP uses acknowledgement mechanism.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee of

successfully transmission of data.

In order to make it reliable, it must be paired with reliable protocol such as TCP at the transport
layer.

Points to remember:

• The length of datagram is variable.

• The Datagram is divided into two parts: header and data.
• The length of header is 20 to 60 bytes.
• The header contains information for routing and delivery of the packet.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Like IP, UDP is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It doesn’t require making a connection
with the host to exchange data. Since UDP is unreliable protocol, there is no mechanism for
ensuring that data sent is received.
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UDP transmits the data in form of a datagram. The UDP datagram consists of five parts as the
following diagram:

Points to remember:

• UDP is used by the application that typically transmit small amount of data at one time.
• UDP provides protocol port used i.e. UDP message contains both source and
destination port number, that makes it possible for UDP software at the destination to
deliver the message to correct application program.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is used to copy files from one host to another. FTP offers the mechanism for the same in
following manner:

• FTP creates two processes such as Control Process and Data Transfer Process at both
ends i.e. at client as well as at server.
• FTP establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other is for
control information.
• Control connection is made between control processes while Data Connection is
made between <="" b="">
• FTP uses port 21 for the control connection and Port 20 for the data connection.

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Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also used to transfer the files but it transfers the files without
authentication. Unlike FTP, TFTP does not separate control and data information. Since there
is no authentication exists, TFTP lacks in security features therefore it is not recommended to
use TFTP.

Key points

• TFTP makes use of UDP for data transport. Each TFTP message is carried in separate
UDP datagram.
• The first two bytes of a TFTP message specify the type of message.
• The TFTP session is initiated when a TFTP client sends a request to upload or download
a file.
• The request is sent from an ephemeral UDP port to the UDP port 69 of an TFTP server.

Telnet

Telnet is a protocol used to log in to remote computer on the internet. There are a number of
Telnet clients having user friendly user interface. The following diagram shows a person is
logged in to computer A, and from there, he remote logged into computer B.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is a communication protocol. It defines mechanism for communication between browser

and the web server. It is also called request and response protocol because the communication
between browser and server takes place in request and response pairs.

HTTP Request

HTTP request comprises of lines which contains:

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• Request line
• Header Fields
• Message body

Key Points

• The first line i.e. the Request line specifies the request method i.e. Get or Post.
• The second line specifies the header which indicates the domain name of the server
from where index.htm is retrieved.

HTTP Response

Like HTTP request, HTTP response also has certain structure. HTTP response contains:

• Status line
• Headers
• Message body

Internet Addressing:

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.

WWW

WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the World Wide Web is : all
the resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

A broader definition comes from the organization that Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee helped
found, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

Internet and Web is not the same thing: Web uses internet to pass over the information.

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Evolution

World Wide Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in Geneva. World
Wide Web came into existence as a proposal by him, to allow researchers to work together
effectively and efficiently at CERN. Eventually it became World Wide Web.

The following diagram briefly defines evolution of World Wide Web:

WWW Architecture

WWW architecture is divided into several layers as

Identifiers and Character Set

Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is used to uniquely identify resources on the web and
UNICODE makes it possible to built web pages that can be read and write in human languages.

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Syntax

XML (Extensible Markup Language) helps to define common syntax in semantic web.

Data Interchange

Resource Description Framework (RDF) framework helps in defining core representation of

data for web. RDF represents data about resource in graph form.

Taxonomies

RDF Schema (RDFS) allows more standardized description of taxonomies and other
ontological constructs.

Ontologies

Web Ontology Language (OWL) offers more constructs over RDFS. It comes in following
three versions:

• OWL Lite for taxonomies and simple constraints.

• OWL DL for full description logic support.
• OWL for more syntactic freedom of RDF

Rules

RIF and SWRL offers rules beyond the constructs that are available from RDFs and OWL.
Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL) is SQL like language used for
querying RDF data and OWL Ontologies.

Proof

All semantic and rules that are executed at layers below Proof and their result will be used to
prove deductions.

Cryptography

Cryptography means such as digital signature for verification of the origin of sources is used.

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User Interface and Applications

On the top of layer User interface and Applications layer is built for user interaction.

WWW (World Wide Web)

WWW works on client- server approach. Following steps explains how the web works:

1. User enters the URL (say, http://www.tutorialspoint.com) of the web page in the
address bar of web browser.
2. Then browser requests the Domain Name Server for the IP address corresponding to
www.tutorialspoint.com.
3. After receiving IP address, browser sends the request for web page to the web server
using HTTP protocol which specifies the way the browser and web server
communicates.
4. Then web server receives request using HTTP protocol and checks its search for the
requested web page. If found it returns it back to the web browser and close the HTTP
connection.
5. Now the web browser receives the web page, It interprets it and display the contents of
web page in web browser’s window.

Future

There had been a rapid development in field of web. It has its impact in almost every area such
as education, research, technology, commerce, marketing etc. So the future of web is almost
unpredictable.

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User Interface

Work on higher quality presentation of 3-D information is under deveopment. The W3

Consortium is also looking forward to enhance the web to full fill requirements of global
communities which would include all regional languages and writing systems.

Technology

Work on privacy and security is under way. This would include hiding information, accounting,
access control, integrity and risk management.

Architecture

There has been huge growth in field of web which may lead to overload the internet and
degrade its performance. Hence more better protocol are required to be developed.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Internet Relay Chat is a protocol developed by Oikarinen in August 1988. It defines set of
rules for communication between client and server by some communication mechanism such
as chat rooms, over the internet.

IRC consist of separate networks of IRC servers and machines. These allow IRC clients to
connect to IRC. IRC client runs a program client to connect to a server on one of the IRC nets.
After connecting to IRC server on IRC network, user can join with one or more channels and
converse over there.

IRC Commands

Following commands are used while connected to an IRC server. Almost of the below
commands will work with most of IRC clients and servers.

Email

Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode over the internet. It
offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of distributing information among people.

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E-Mail Address

Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This name is known as E-
mail address. Different users can send and receive messages according to the e-mail address.

E-mail is generally of the form username@domainname. For example,

[email protected] is an e-mail address where webmaster is username and
tutorialspoint.com is domain name.

• The username and the domain name are separated by @ (at) symbol.
• E-mail addresses are not case sensitive.
• Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

E-mail Message Components

E-mail message comprises of different components: E-mail Header, Greeting, Text, and
Signature. These components are described in the following diagram:

E-mail Header

The first five lines of an E-mail message is called E-mail header. The header part comprises of
following fields:

• From
• Date
• To
• Subject

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• CC
• BCC

From

The From field indicates the sender’s address i.e. who sent the e-mail.

Date

The Date field indicates the date when the e-mail was sent.

To

The To field indicates the recipient’s address i.e. to whom the e-mail is sent.

Subject

The Subject field indicates the purpose of e-mail. It should be precise and to the point.

CC

CC stands for Carbon copy. It includes those recipient addresses whom we want to keep
informed but not exactly the intended recipient.

BCC

BCC stands for Black Carbon Copy. It is used when we do not want one or more of the
recipients to know that someone else was copied on the message.

Greeting

Greeting is the opening of the actual message. Eg. Hi Sir or Hi Guys etc.

Text

It represents the actual content of the message.

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Signature

This is the final part of an e-mail message. It includes Name of Sender, Address, and Contact
Number.

Advantages

• Reliable
• Convenience
• Speed
• Inexpensive
• Printable
• Global
• Generality

Disadvantages

• Forgery
• Overload
• Misdirection
• Junk

Email Ethitcs:

• Do have a clear subject line.

• Don't forget your signature.
• Do use a professional salutation.
• Don't use humor.
• Do proofread your message.
• Don't assume the recipient knows what you are talking about.
• Do reply to all emails.
• Don't shoot from the lip.

Introduction to Multimedia:

Multimedia uses computers to present text, audio, video, animation, interactive

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features, and still images in various ways and combinations made possible through the
advancement of technology. By combining media and content, those interested in multimedia
can take on and work with a variety of media forms to get their content across. This is an
exciting new field for those interested in computers, technology, and creative career options.
Multimedia can be accessed through computers or electronic devices and integrates the various
forms together. One example of multimedia would be combining a website with video, audio,
or text images.

Multimedia tools and Applications

A Multimedia Application is an application which uses a multiple media sources e.g. text,
graphics, images, sound/audio, animation and/or video. Multimedia conference covers the
selected tools applied in multimedia systems and key multimedia applications. It comprises of
Audio, video processing, Virtual reality and 3-D imaging, Virtual reality and 3-D imaging,
Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence.

Multimedia Applications is the creation of exciting and innovative multimedia systems that
communicate information customized to the user in a non-linear interactive format. Multimedia
conference discusses the basic and novel characteristics of multimedia document handling,
programming, security, human computer interfaces, and multimedia application services.

• Audio, video processing

• Education and training
• Multimedia analysis and Internet
• Artificial Intelligence
• Virtual reality and 3-D imaging
• Wireless, Mobile Computing
• Animation and Graphics
• Visual Communication

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Unit 5

E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce is a methodology of modern business, which

addresses the need of business organizations, vendors and customers to reduce cost and
improve the quality of goods and services while increasing the speed of delivery. Ecommerce
refers to the paperless exchange of business information using the following ways −

• Electronic Data Exchange (EDI)

• Electronic Mail (e-mail)
• Electronic Bulletin Boards
• Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)
• Other Network-based technologies

Features

• Non-Cash Payment , 24x7 Service availability

• Advertising / Marketing , Improved Sales
• Support Inventory Management
• Communication improvement

Classification of Ecommerce:

• Business - to - Business (B2B)

• Business - to - Consumer (B2C)
• Consumer - to - Consumer (C2C)

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• Consumer - to - Business (C2B)

• Business - to - Government (B2G)
• Government - to - Business (G2B)
• Government - to - Citizen (G2C)

Business - to - Business

A website following the B2B business model sells its products to an intermediate buyer who
then sells the product to the final customer.

Business - to - Consumer

A website following the B2C business model sells its products directly to a customer. A
customer can view the products shown on the website. The customer can choose a product
and order the same. The website will then send a notification to the business organization via
email and the organization will dispatch the product/goods to the customer.

Consumer - to - Consumer

A website following the C2C business model helps consumers to sell their assets like
residential property, cars, motorcycles.

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Consumer - to - Business

In this model, a consumer approaches a website showing multiple business organizations for
a particular service.

Business - to - Government

B2G model is a variant of B2B model. Such websites are used by governments to trade and
exchange information with various business organizations.

Government - to - Business

Governments use B2G model websites to approach business organizations. Such websites
support auctions, tenders, and application submission functionalities.

Government - to - Citizen

Governments use G2C model websites to approach citizen in general. Such websites support
auctions of vehicles, machinery, or any other material. Such website also provides services
like registration for birth, marriage or death certificates.

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System Analysis and Design

Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis,
design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus

• Systems analysis
• Systems design

Systems Analysis

It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and

decomposition of a system into its components.

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to
identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and ensures
that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.

Systems Design

It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining

its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements.

System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses

• Systems
• Processes
• Technology

System Development Life Cycle

An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high quality system
that meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost evaluations, and
works effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology
infrastructure.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.

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SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following
activities

• Requirements, Design, Implementation

• Testing, Deployment, Operation, Maintenance

Phases of SDLC

Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the
work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified Information System.

Feasibility Study or Planning

• Define the problem and scope of existing system.

• Overview the new system and determine its objectives.
• Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.
• During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are also
considered.
• A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.

Analysis and Specification

• Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

• Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
• Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.
• Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.

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• A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the software,

hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is prepared at the end
of this phase.

System Design

• Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system
interfaces.
• Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and
complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.
• Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.
• Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the requirements
stated in SRS document.
• Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation

• Implement the design into source code through coding.

• Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and
defects.
• A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test
related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for
testing.

Maintenance/Support

• Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users
that is required once the system is installing.
• Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or
implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the customer
location.
• Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems and for a
short time for smaller systems.

Mobile Commerce:

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Mobile commerce, often referred to as m-commerce, involves the buying and selling of goods
and services through mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. It extends beyond simple
online shopping to include mobile banking, ticketing, and even mobile payments.
Key Components of Mobile Commerce
1. Mobile Shopping: Utilizing mobile apps and websites optimized for mobile devices to
browse, compare, and purchase products.
2. Mobile Payments: Using smartphones for financial transactions, including mobile
wallets (e.g., Apple Pay, Google Wallet), NFC (Near Field Communication) payments,
and other digital payment systems.
3. Mobile Banking: Accessing banking services and performing financial transactions via
mobile apps.
4. Mobile Ticketing: Purchasing and storing tickets for events, public transport, and more
directly on mobile devices.
5. Location-Based Services: Leveraging GPS and other location data to offer personalized
services and promotions.
6. Mobile Coupons and Loyalty Programs: Digital coupons and loyalty rewards managed
through mobile apps.
Benefits of Mobile Commerce
• Convenience: Enables users to shop and conduct transactions from anywhere at any
time.
• Personalization: Offers personalized shopping experiences based on user preferences
and behaviors.
• Speed: Faster transactions compared to traditional e-commerce due to streamlined
mobile interfaces.
• Innovation: Encourages the development of new technologies and business models.
Challenges of Mobile Commerce
• Security: Ensuring secure transactions and protecting user data is paramount.
• User Experience: Designing intuitive and easy-to-navigate mobile interfaces is
essential for user satisfaction.
• Connectivity: Dependence on stable and fast internet connections can be a limitation in
some areas.
• Compatibility: Ensuring compatibility across various devices and operating systems
can be challenging.
Trends in Mobile Commerce

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• Augmented Reality (AR): Enhancing shopping experiences by allowing users to

visualize products in real-world settings.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): Personalizing shopping experiences and providing virtual
assistants.
• Voice Commerce: Using voice commands for shopping and transactions through virtual
assistants like Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant.
• Blockchain: Improving security and transparency in mobile transactions.
Future of Mobile Commerce
The future of mobile commerce is likely to see further integration of advanced technologies
such as AI, AR, and blockchain, along with a continued focus on enhancing security and user
experience. The rise of 5G networks will also contribute to faster and more reliable mobile
commerce experiences.

Business on the internet:

Business on the internet, commonly referred to as e-business or online business, encompasses

all forms of conducting business activities through the internet. This includes buying and
selling goods and services, as well as other activities such as customer service, supply chain
management, and business collaboration.

Types of Internet-Based Businesses

1. E-Commerce: Selling products and services online via websites, marketplaces, or

social media platforms. Examples include Amazon, eBay, and Etsy.
2. Service-Based Businesses: Offering services such as consulting, freelance work,
online tutoring, and digital marketing.
3. Subscription Models: Providing content or services on a subscription basis, like
streaming services (Netflix, Spotify) or software-as-a-service (SaaS) platforms
(Salesforce, Adobe Creative Cloud).
4. Content Creation: Generating revenue through blogs, YouTube channels, podcasts,
and social media influencers, often through advertising, sponsorships, and affiliate
marketing.
5. Digital Products: Selling non-physical products such as e-books, online courses,
software, and digital art.

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6. Affiliate Marketing: Promoting other companies' products and earning commissions

on sales through referral links.
7. Dropshipping: Selling products without holding inventory, where the supplier ships
products directly to the customer.

Key Components of Online Business

1. Website: The primary platform for many online businesses, serving as a storefront,
information hub, or service portal.
2. Payment Gateway: Systems that allow for secure online payments, such as PayPal,
Stripe, and Square.
3. Digital Marketing: Strategies to promote the business online, including SEO, social
media marketing, email marketing, and paid advertising.
4. Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Tools and strategies for managing
interactions with current and potential customers.
5. Analytics: Monitoring and analyzing web traffic and customer behavior to optimize
business strategies.

Benefits of Internet-Based Business

• Global Reach: Access to a worldwide market, breaking geographical barriers.

• Lower Costs: Reduced overhead costs compared to traditional brick-and-mortar
businesses.
• Convenience: 24/7 availability for customers and the ability to operate from
anywhere.
• Scalability: Easier to scale operations and reach larger audiences without significant
physical expansion.
• Data-Driven Insights: Ability to gather and analyze data to make informed business
decisions.

Challenges of Internet-Based Business

• Security: Ensuring the security of online transactions and protecting customer data.
• Competition: High competition due to the low barrier to entry for online businesses.

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• Technology Dependence: Reliance on internet connectivity and technology, which

can be subject to outages and technical issues.
• Customer Trust: Building and maintaining customer trust and loyalty in a virtual
environment.
• Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Navigating different laws and regulations across
various regions.

Trends in Online Business

• Mobile Optimization: Ensuring websites and services are mobile-friendly as more

users access the internet via smartphones.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): Using AI for personalized customer experiences,
chatbots, and predictive analytics.
• Social Commerce: Leveraging social media platforms for direct selling and customer
engagement.
• Voice Search: Optimizing for voice search as more users adopt voice-activated
devices.
• Sustainability: Integrating sustainable practices and products to appeal to
environmentally conscious consumers.

Future of Internet-Based Business

The future of online business will likely be shaped by ongoing technological advancements,
increased emphasis on customer experience, and a greater focus on data security and privacy.
The integration of emerging technologies such as blockchain, augmented reality (AR), and
virtual reality (VR) will also play significant roles in transforming online business practices.

E-Commerce applications in various industries like banking, insurance, payment of

bills- etailing( popularity, benefits, problem and features):

E-commerce applications have revolutionized numerous industries, including banking,

insurance, bill payments, and retailing (etailing). Here's a detailed look at how e-commerce is
applied in these sectors, along with its popularity, benefits, problems, and features.

1. Banking

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Applications:

• Online Banking: Customers can perform a wide range of banking activities online,
such as transferring funds, checking account balances, and applying for loans.
• Mobile Banking: Accessing banking services through mobile apps.
• Digital Wallets: Storing and managing money digitally for online transactions.

Popularity:

• Highly popular due to convenience, 24/7 availability, and ease of access.

Benefits:

• Convenience: No need to visit physical branches.

• Time-Saving: Quick transactions and instant access to services.
• Cost-Effective: Reduces operational costs for banks.

Problems:

• Security: Risk of cyberattacks and data breaches.

• Technical Issues: Downtime and technical glitches.
• User Trust: Building trust for online security measures.

Features:

• Secure Login: Multi-factor authentication and encryption.

• Real-Time Updates: Instant transaction alerts and updates.
• User-Friendly Interface: Easy navigation and accessibility.

2. Insurance

Applications:

• Online Policy Purchase: Buying insurance policies online.

• Claim Management: Filing and tracking claims digitally.
• Premium Payments: Paying premiums through online platforms.

Popularity:

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• Increasingly popular for its ease of access and transparency.

Benefits:

• Convenience: Easy comparison of policies and features.

• Transparency: Clear information and terms.
• Efficiency: Quick processing of claims and payments.

Problems:

• Complexity: Difficulty in understanding policies without expert guidance.

• Security: Protection of sensitive personal and financial information.
• Regulation Compliance: Ensuring adherence to legal standards.

Features:

• Online Calculators: Estimating premiums and coverage.

• Chatbots: Providing instant customer support.
• Document Upload: Facilitating easy submission of required documents.

3. Payment of Bills

Applications:

• Utility Bills: Paying electricity, water, and gas bills online.

• Telecommunications: Managing and paying phone and internet bills.
• Subscriptions: Handling recurring payments for services like streaming platforms.

Popularity:

• Widely adopted for its simplicity and efficiency.

Benefits:

• Convenience: Pay bills anytime, anywhere.

• Automated Payments: Setting up recurring payments to avoid missed due dates.
• Digital Records: Maintaining a history of all payments.

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Problems:

• Security Risks: Potential for fraud and unauthorized transactions.

• Technical Failures: Issues with payment gateways and processing.
• User Errors: Mistakes in entering payment details.

Features:

• Payment Reminders: Alerts for upcoming due dates.

• Multiple Payment Options: Credit/debit cards, digital wallets, bank transfers.
• Instant Confirmation: Immediate confirmation and receipts for payments.

4. E-Tailing (Electronic Retailing)

Popularity:

• E-tailing has seen exponential growth, driven by the increasing use of the internet and
mobile devices.

Benefits:

• Convenience: Shopping from home without time constraints.

• Wide Selection: Access to a broad range of products from different sellers.
• Price Comparisons: Easily compare prices and reviews before purchasing.

Problems:

• Delivery Issues: Delays, wrong products, or damaged goods.

• Security Concerns: Protecting customer data and transaction security.
• Return Policies: Managing returns and refunds can be complex.

Features:

• Product Listings: Detailed descriptions, images, and specifications.

• Customer Reviews: User ratings and feedback.
• Personalization: Recommendations based on browsing and purchase history.
• Secure Payment: Multiple payment methods with secure transaction processes.

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• Order Tracking: Real-time tracking of shipments and delivery status.

• Customer Support: Accessible support through chat, email, or phone.

Future Trends in E-Commerce

• AI and Machine Learning: Enhanced personalization and predictive analytics.

• AR and VR: Virtual try-ons and immersive shopping experiences.
• Blockchain: Improved security and transparency in transactions.
• Voice Commerce: Shopping through voice commands using smart assistants.
• Sustainability: Eco-friendly packaging and ethical sourcing practices.

Online services (financial , travel and career):

The internet has transformed how we access and utilize services in various sectors. Here's an
in-depth look at online services in financial, travel, and career industries, covering their
applications, popularity, benefits, problems, and features.

1. Financial Services

Applications:

• Online Banking: Accessing bank accounts, transferring money, paying bills, and
managing finances.
• Investment Platforms: Buying and selling stocks, mutual funds, and other investment
products.
• Digital Wallets: Managing money and making payments through apps like PayPal,
Venmo, and Apple Pay.
• Loan Applications: Applying for personal, home, or business loans online.
• Robo-Advisors: Automated financial planning services offering investment advice.

Popularity:

• Highly popular due to convenience, 24/7 accessibility, and wide range of services.

Benefits:

• Convenience: Perform financial transactions from anywhere.

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• Efficiency: Quick processing of transactions and applications.

• Cost-Effective: Lower fees compared to traditional services.
• Accessibility: Greater access to financial services for underserved populations.

Problems:

• Security: Risk of cyberattacks, fraud, and data breaches.

• Technical Issues: Service outages and technical glitches.
• User Trust: Ensuring users trust online platforms with sensitive financial information.

Features:

• Secure Login: Multi-factor authentication, encryption, and biometric access.

• Real-Time Updates: Instant notifications and updates on transactions.
• Personalized Dashboards: Customizable interfaces for tracking finances.
• Customer Support: 24/7 support through chatbots, email, or phone.

2. Travel Services

Applications:

• Booking Platforms: Websites and apps for booking flights, hotels, car rentals, and
vacation packages.
• Travel Planning: Tools for itinerary planning, including activities, restaurants, and
tours.
• Travel Insurance: Purchasing insurance for trips, including coverage for cancellations
and emergencies.
• Virtual Tours: Experiencing destinations through virtual reality before booking.

Popularity:

• Widely adopted for the convenience and comprehensive offerings.

Benefits:

• Convenience: Book and manage travel plans from anywhere.

• Price Comparisons: Easily compare prices across different providers.

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• Personalized Recommendations: Tailored suggestions based on user preferences and

past behavior.
• Customer Reviews: Access to user reviews and ratings for informed decisions.

Problems:

• Booking Errors: Mistakes in bookings or overbooking issues.

• Cancellation Policies: Varying policies and potential complications with cancellations
and refunds.
• Security: Protecting personal and payment information.

Features:

• Search Filters: Advanced filters for finding specific travel options.

• User Reviews: Ratings and reviews from other travelers.
• Loyalty Programs: Points and rewards systems for frequent users.
• Itinerary Management: Tools to manage and share travel plans.
• Customer Support: Assistance through chat, email, or phone.

3. Career Services

Applications:

• Job Portals: Websites for job searching and applying, such as LinkedIn, Indeed, and
Glassdoor.
• Online Learning: Platforms offering courses and certifications for skill development,
like Coursera, Udemy, and LinkedIn Learning.
• Freelancing Platforms: Connecting freelancers with clients for project-based work,
such as Upwork and Fiverr.
• Career Counseling: Online career advice, resume building, and interview preparation
services.

Popularity:

• Increasingly popular for ease of access to job opportunities and professional

development.

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Benefits:

• Access to Opportunities: Broader access to job listings and networking opportunities.

• Skill Development: Wide range of online courses and certifications for career
advancement.
• Flexibility: Opportunities for remote work and freelance projects.
• Efficiency: Streamlined job application processes.

Problems:

• Job Scams: Risk of fraudulent job postings and scams.

• Data Privacy: Ensuring the protection of personal information.
• Job Market Saturation: High competition for job listings on popular platforms.

Features:

• Advanced Search: Filters for specific job criteria, including location, industry, and
experience level.
• Profile Building: Tools for creating and enhancing professional profiles and resumes.
• Networking: Connecting with professionals and industry peers.
• Skill Assessments: Tests and quizzes to evaluate and showcase skills.
• Notifications: Alerts for new job postings and application updates.
• Career Resources: Articles, webinars, and guides on job search strategies and career
development.

Future Trends in Online Services

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): Enhanced personalization, predictive analytics, and

automation in services.
• Blockchain: Increased security and transparency in financial transactions and data
management.
• Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/AR): Immersive travel experiences and
interactive career training.
• Voice Search and Assistance: Greater integration of voice-activated assistants for
service accessibility.

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• Sustainability: Emphasis on eco-friendly practices and services in travel and career

development.

Online learning:

Online learning, also known as e-learning or digital learning, involves the use of the internet
and digital technologies to deliver educational content and training. It encompasses a wide
range of formats, including fully online courses, hybrid or blended learning, and
supplementary digital tools used in traditional classroom settings.

Key Components of Online Learning

1. Learning Management Systems (LMS): Platforms like Moodle, Canvas, and

Blackboard that provide a centralized location for course materials, assignments,
discussions, and assessments.
2. Video Lectures and Webinars: Recorded or live sessions where instructors teach
course content.
3. Interactive Content: Quizzes, simulations, and multimedia resources to engage
learners.
4. Discussion Forums and Social Learning: Online communities where students can
interact, discuss topics, and collaborate on projects.
5. Assessment and Feedback Tools: Online quizzes, assignments, and peer reviews to
evaluate learning and provide feedback.

Popular Online Learning Platforms

1. Coursera: Offers courses, specializations, and degrees from universities and

companies worldwide.
2. Udemy: A marketplace for learning and teaching, with a wide range of courses on
various subjects.
3. edX: Provides university-level courses in a wide range of disciplines, some of which
can lead to professional certificates or degrees.
4. LinkedIn Learning: Offers courses focused on business, technology, and creative
skills.
5. Khan Academy: Provides free educational resources for K-12 students and beyond.

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Benefits of Online Learning

1. Flexibility: Learners can access materials and complete courses at their own pace and
on their own schedule.
2. Accessibility: Education is accessible to a wider audience, including those who cannot
attend traditional classes due to geographical or time constraints.
3. Cost-Effective: Often more affordable than traditional education, with reduced costs
for transportation, housing, and materials.
4. Wide Range of Courses: Access to a diverse array of subjects and specialized courses
not always available locally.
5. Personalization: Adaptive learning technologies can tailor content to individual
learning styles and paces.

Challenges of Online Learning

1. Self-Discipline: Requires strong time-management skills and self-motivation to keep

up with coursework.
2. Technical Issues: Dependence on reliable internet access and compatible devices.
3. Limited Interaction: Reduced face-to-face interaction with instructors and peers,
which can impact engagement and support.
4. Assessment Integrity: Ensuring the integrity of assessments and preventing cheating
can be challenging.
5. Recognition and Accreditation: Not all online courses and certifications are
recognized or valued equally by employers or educational institutions.

Features of Effective Online Learning Programs

1. Engaging Content: Interactive and multimedia content that keeps learners interested.
2. Clear Structure: Well-organized courses with clear objectives, deadlines, and
expectations.
3. Interactive Elements: Opportunities for interaction through discussions, group
projects, and real-time Q&A sessions.
4. Timely Feedback: Regular and constructive feedback from instructors and peers.
5. Support Services: Access to academic support, technical assistance, and career
counseling.

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6. Mobile Compatibility: Courses that can be accessed on various devices, including

smartphones and tablets.

Future Trends in Online Learning

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Personalized learning experiences and automated grading

systems.
2. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Immersive learning environments
and simulations.
3. Microlearning: Short, focused segments of content designed for quick consumption
and retention.
4. Gamification: Incorporation of game-like elements to increase engagement and
motivation.
5. Blockchain Technology: Secure and transparent credentialing and certification.
6. Lifelong Learning: Emphasis on continuous learning and upskilling to keep pace with
changing job markets and technologies.

Online shopping (amazon, snapdeal, Alibaba and flipkart etc):

Online shopping, also known as e-commerce, involves purchasing goods and services over
the internet through various websites and platforms. Major players in the online shopping
industry include Amazon, Snapdeal, Alibaba, and Flipkart, among others. Here’s a closer
look at these platforms, including their popularity, benefits, problems, and key features.

Major Online Shopping Platforms

1. Amazon:
o Overview: Founded by Jeff Bezos in 1994, Amazon is the largest online
retailer in the world, offering a vast selection of products, including
electronics, clothing, books, and groceries.
o Popularity: Extremely popular globally due to its extensive product range,
reliable delivery, and customer service.
o Unique Features:
▪ Prime Membership with benefits like free shipping, access to
streaming services, and exclusive deals.

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▪ Amazon Web Services (AWS) for cloud computing.

▪ Advanced recommendation algorithms.
2. Snapdeal:
o Overview: Founded in 2010, Snapdeal is an Indian e-commerce platform
offering a wide range of products, including electronics, fashion, and home
goods.
o Popularity: Popular in India for its deals and discounts, catering to budget-
conscious consumers.
o Unique Features:
▪ Focus on value-for-money products.
▪ Strong presence in tier 2 and tier 3 cities in India.
▪ Partnership with local sellers.
3. Alibaba:
o Overview: Founded by Jack Ma in 1999, Alibaba is a Chinese e-commerce
giant primarily known for its business-to-business (B2B) marketplace but also
operates consumer platforms like Taobao and Tmall.
o Popularity: Dominates the Chinese market and has a significant global
presence in wholesale trade.
o Unique Features:
▪ Extensive B2B marketplace connecting international buyers and
manufacturers.
▪ AliExpress for direct consumer sales worldwide.
▪ Integrated payment system (Alipay).
4. Flipkart:
o Overview: Founded in 2007, Flipkart is one of India's leading e-commerce
platforms, offering products across various categories, including electronics,
fashion, and groceries.
o Popularity: Highly popular in India, especially for electronics and fashion.
o Unique Features:
▪ Flipkart Plus membership with benefits like free delivery and early
access to sales.
▪ Strong focus on customer service and return policies.
▪ Integration with local sellers and brands.

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Benefits of Online Shopping

1. Convenience: Shop from anywhere at any time without the need to visit physical
stores.
2. Wide Selection: Access to a vast array of products from different categories and
brands.
3. Price Comparisons: Easily compare prices and find the best deals.
4. Customer Reviews: Read reviews and ratings from other customers to make informed
decisions.
5. Delivery Services: Home delivery with options for express or scheduled delivery.

Problems of Online Shopping

1. Security Risks: Potential for cyberattacks, data breaches, and fraudulent transactions.
2. Product Quality: Risk of receiving counterfeit or substandard products.
3. Delivery Issues: Delays, incorrect items, or damaged goods during transit.
4. Return Policies: Complications with returning items and obtaining refunds.
5. Lack of Physical Interaction: Inability to physically inspect products before purchase.

Key Features of Effective Online Shopping Platforms

1. User-Friendly Interface: Easy navigation, search functionality, and a seamless

checkout process.
2. Secure Payment Options: Multiple secure payment methods, including credit/debit
cards, digital wallets, and cash on delivery.
3. Customer Support: Accessible support through chat, email, or phone to resolve issues
quickly.
4. Personalization: Tailored recommendations based on browsing and purchase history.
5. Order Tracking: Real-time tracking of shipments and delivery status.
6. Flexible Return Policies: Hassle-free return and refund processes.
7. Loyalty Programs: Rewards and benefits for frequent shoppers.

Future Trends in Online Shopping

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Enhanced personalization, chatbots for customer service,

and predictive analytics.

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2. Augmented Reality (AR): Virtual try-ons for clothing and accessories, and visualizing
furniture in home spaces.
3. Voice Commerce: Shopping through voice-activated devices like Amazon Echo and
Google Home.
4. Sustainability: Eco-friendly packaging and sustainable product offerings.
5. Blockchain Technology: Increased transparency and security in supply chains and
transactions.
6. Omnichannel Experiences: Integration of online and offline shopping experiences for
a seamless customer journey.

One marks

1. Which output device is used for translating information from a computer into pictorial
form on paper?

Plotter
2. Which memory is called non-volatile memory ?

ROM
3. Brain of any computer system is called ?

CPU
4. Control unit of a digital computer is often called the ……………….

Nerve center
5. ALU stands for …………

Arithmetic Logic Unit

6. A memory that holds micro program is ?

ROM
7. Which of the following devices can be used to directly input printed text?

OCR
8. The output quality of a printer is measured by …………

Dots per inch

9. In Analog computer Input is ……………….

Never Converted into Digital Form

10. RAM stand for

Random Access Memory

11. The capacity to perform multiple tasks simultaneously is termed as …………

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Versatility
12. A computer does not suffer from tiredness and lack of concentration. It is knows as……

Diligence
13. The process of Entering data and instructions into a computer is called …………

Input
14. Mouse is otherwise called as ………….

Pointing Device
15. Monitors are Commonly called as ………

Visual Display Unit

16. Laser Printers are ………….

Non Impact printers

17. CRT stands for

Cathode Ray Tube

18. PDA stands for

Personal Digital Assistant

19. A combination of both analog and digital computer is called

Hybrid Computer
20. One KB is equal to

1024Byes

21. What are two types of software ?

System Software and Application software

22. Which memory used as static memory?

Cache memory
23. Which memory is used as refresh memory?

Dynamic RAM
24. Payroll software is an example of ……..

Application Software
25. Set of instructions is called as ………..

Software
26. Booting is an function of ………..

Operating System
27. Network Operating system runs on a ………

Server
28. Real operating is a n example of ……….

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Data processing system

29. Machine language is an example of ……

Low level language

30. 0’s and 1’s is called as ………..

Binary bits
31. Which language is used to transfer assembly code into human readable format?

High level language

32. JIT stands for

Just in Time Compiler

33. Assembly languages used……

Mnemonics
34. Network Operating system is used for ……..

Sharing information between computers

35. File Management and Device management is …………….

Characteristics of Operating System

36. Compilers, Interpreter ,and Assemblers are example of

System Software
37. Primary Memory is also called as ………..

Main Memory
38. Magnetic tape is a ………… device

Sequential Access storage device

39. DASD stands for

Direct Access Storage Device

40. …………. Is an interface between hardware and software

Operating System
41. Collection, manipulation and processing collected data for required use is called as ……

Data processing
42. Facility to store and execute more than one program is called as …………

Multiple programming
43. Real time processing is also called as

Direct mode or Interactive Mode

44. …….. technique facilitates the entry and execution of data directly

On-line Processing
45. DBMS stands for

Database Management System

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46. ……. Is a collection of related data

Database
47. MS access is an example of

Database
48. ……… is a collection of facts and figures that can be processed to produce information.

Data
49. Database is ………End

Back End
50. ……… becomes easier to retrieve, manipulate and produce information.

DBMS
51. Database is stored in the form of …….

Table
52. Insertion ,updation and Deletion of data is called as …..

Data Manipulation
53. ……….. is a set of physical electronic device.

Hardware
54. ACID stands for…….

Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability

55. Instructions and Rules how to use the database is called as…

Procedures
56. Transform the user queries into a series of low level instructions is called ….

Query Processor
57. ……… database can be used to connect one table of data to another.

Relational database
58. In graph database data is stored in the form of….

Nodes, Edges and properties

59. MAN stands for

Metropolitan Area Network

60. WAN stands for

Wide area Network

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