GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

AND
HYRDOMETEOROLOGICAL
PROCESSES

MS. CATHERINE BAYLAN, LPT, MIEE, MCE

FACULTY, STEM-ICT
Volcanic Eruption
 3

The Philippine Archipelago occupies the western ring of the Pacific Ocean
(Western Segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire), a most active part of the earth
that is characterized by an ocean-encircling belt of active volcanoes and
earthquake generators (faults).
VOLCANO
the term signifies a
vent, hill,
or mountain from which
molten or hot
rocks with gaseous
materials are ejected.
 Volcano

 Is a vent on the earth’s surface that opens downward

to pool of molten rock, debris and gases.
 Is formed through the process of subduction. A plate
containing the lithosphere descends below the
adjacent plate. The plate sinks deep and causes the
crust to release trapped fluids. The fluids melt and
overlying minerals and produce magma. The magma
migrates towards the surface and erupts, but it is so
thick and pasty that it can flow very far. It sticks to the
sides and forms a tall, steep-sided cone.
DISTRIBUTION OF
ACTIVE, INACTIVE
AND POTENTIALLY
ACTIVE VOLCANOES
DISTRIBUTION OF
ACTIVE,
INACTIVE
AND
POTENTIALLY
ACTIVE
VOLCANOES
 Subduction

 Takes place when two plates converge.

 Volcanic eruption
 Takes place when volcanic gases accumulate and
the pressure becomes too great inside the magma
chamber. The volcano then expels lava, rocks, ash
and gas.
Classification of Volcanoes

 Active – currently erupting or is showing

signs of volcanic eruption. Erupted within
the last 600 years
 Potentially active – is one which has
erupted and then entered a long period
of inactivity
 Inactive – one that has not shown any
sign of activity for a long period. It has no
record of volcanic eruption in the past
thousand years.
 Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Lava flow – mass of magma that flows down the slope of the
volcano at a rate of 3 kilometers per day
 Pyroclastic flow – refers to hot dry masses of fragmented volcanic
materials that move along the slope and in contact with ground
surface at a speed greater than 60 kilometers per hour.
 Tephra falls – are showers of fine to coarse-grained volcanic
materials and other airborne products of a volcanic eruption.
 Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Ballistic projectiles – are rocks that are released into the air by an
erupting volcano.
 Volcanic gas – one of the basic components of magma or lava.
Active and inactive volcanoes may release gases to the
atmosphere in the form of water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride
and hydrogen fluoride.
 Lahar – flowing mixture of volcanic debris and water. It is classified
into two:
 Primary of hot lahar
 Secondary or cold lahar
 Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

According to Philippine Institute of Volcanology and

Seismology (PHIVOLCS) the following are the signs of an
imminent volcanic eruption:
 Increased incidences of volcanic quakes
 Due to accumulation of entrapped ashes, the steam activity
increases and its color changes from white to gray.
 Crater blazed due to the presence of magma.
 Tilting, fissuring and inflation of the ground because for the
incursion of magma.
 Occurrence of landslides and rockfalls not related to heave
rains.
 Prevalence of dying flora within the perimeter of the
volcano
 Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

 There is an increase of temperature of the bodies of the water

near the area of the volcano.
 Abnormal concentration of chemical compounds present in the
bodies of water within the vicinity of the volcano.
 The springs or wells near the volcano rapidly evaporate.
 New thermal areas, including old ones, augment thus leading to
solfataras.
These signs may vary from one volcano to another.
 Volcanic Eruption Preparedness

Prepare NOW
 Know your area’s risk from volcanic eruption.
 Ask local emergency management for evacuation and shelter
plans, and for potential means of protection from ash.
 Learn about community warning systems.
 Get necessary supplies in advance in case you have to evacuate
immediately, or if services are cut off. Keep in mind each person’s
specific needs, including medication. Do not forget the needs of
pets.
 Volcanic Eruption Preparedness

 Consult your doctor if you have existing respiratory

difficulties.
 Practice a communication and evacuation plan with
everyone in your family.
 Have a shelter-in-place plan if your biggest risk is from ash.
 Keep important documents in a safe place. Create
password-protected digital copies.
 Survive DURING

• Listen to alerts.
• Follow evacuation orders from local authorities. Evacuate
early.
• Avoid areas downwind, and river valleys downstream, of
the volcano. Rubble and ash will be carried by wind and
gravity.
• Take temporary shelter from volcanic ash where you are if
you have enough supplies. Cover ventilation openings and
seal doors and windows.
• If outside, protect yourself from falling ash that can irritate
skin and injure breathing passages, eyes, and open wounds.
Use a well-fitting, certified facemask such as an N95. Avoid
driving in heavy ash fall.
 Be Safe AFTER

• Listen to authorities to find out when it is safe to return after an

eruption.
• Send text messages or use social media to reach out to family and
friends. Phone systems are often busy after a disaster. Only make
emergency calls.
• Avoid driving in heavy ash. Driving will stir up volcanic ash that can
clog engines and stall vehicles.
• If you have any breathing problems, avoid contact with ash. Stay
indoors until authorities say it is safe to go outside.
• Do not get on your roof to remove ash unless you have guidance
or training. If you have to remove ash, then be very careful as ash
makes surfaces slippery. Be careful not to contribute additional
weight to an overloaded roof.
Active Volcanoes Potentially Active
- Eruption in historic times -Geologically young (possibly
- Historical record - 500 years erupted < 10,000 years and for
- C14 dating - 10,000 years calderas and large systems -
- Local seismic activity possibly < 25,000 years).
- Oral / folkloric history - Young-looking geomorphology
(thin soil cover/sparse vegetation;
low degree of erosion)
Inactive - Suspected seismic activity.
No record of eruption - Documented local ground
and its form is beginning to deformation
change by the agents of - Strong connection with
weathering and erosion subduction zones and external
tectonic settings.
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Phreatic - explosion driven by steam

produced by heating and expansion of
groundwater due to an underlying hot
source. This type involves only water, steam
and ash with other rock fragments derived
from pre-existing rocks, without ejection of
fresh magmatic materials.
Examples:
1993 & 1996 eruptions of Canlaon Volcano
1988 eruption of Bulusan Volcano
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Phreatomagmatic - eruption resulting from

the ejection of magmatic gases and steam
produced by the conversion of groundwater
to steam by ascending magma, mixed with
water, fine ash and variably-sized volcanic
bombs fragmented from the pre-existing
rock formations, and fresh magmatic ejecta.
The eruption forms a high eruption column
with a radially spreading ring-shaped
horizontal cloud at the base due to peeling
of the crater lip or deflection in the rise of
later ejections caused by the pressure of
falling pyroclastic materials.
Example:
1965 & 1967 eruptions of Taal Volcano
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Strombolian - weak to violent eruption characterized by lava fountaining and

effusion of molten lava. Typical ejecta are ovoid and fusiform bombs and scoria
(cinders). Ash is relatively minor in amount and eruption cloud is generally yellowish
to white in color.
Examples:
1968 & 1969 eruptions of Taal Volcano
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Vulcanian - eruption resulting from the release of large quantities of

accumulated magmatic gas which lefts fine ashes and blocks coming
from the magma with great force high in the air forming voluminous
eruption clouds.
Examples:
2nd phase of 2000 & 2001 eruptions of Mayon Volcano
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Peleean - eruption caused by the release of large

quantities of gas from an extremely viscous
magma that hurls out ash and other pyroclastic
materials and is characterized by the presence of
nuee ardente or glowing avalanche consisting of
hot gases made dense by a suspended load of
pyroclastic material.
Example:
1948-1953 eruption of Hibok-Hibok Volcano
 Types of Volcanic Eruption

Plinian - eruption of great violence characterized by voluminous explosive

ejections of pumice and pyroclastic flows. The extrusion of gas-rich magma is
commonly accompanied by collapse of the top of the volcanic cone forming a
caldera.
Example: Pinatubo Volcano 1991 eruption.
 VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Volcano-related phenomena that pose potential threat or cause
negative impact to man, property and the environment, in a given
period of time.

 Hazards directly related  Hazards indirectly related

to volcanic eruptions to volcanic eruptions
 Lahars
 Lava flows
 Secondary explosions
 Pyroclastic flows  Tsunami
 Ashfall  Debris avalanche or
volcanic landslides
 Volcanic gases  Fissuring
 PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

-turbulent mass of ejected

fragmented volcanic materials (ash and rocks), mixed
with hot gases that flow downslope at very high speed
( > 60 kph)
Singed /
Ridge burned zone

Blow-down trees

Ridge

Filling of river valleys w/

Pyroclastic flow deposits
 HIBOK-HIBOK
VOLCANO

IMPACTS OF
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

Singed / burned vegetation

500 casualties
LAVA FLOWS
-stream-like flows of incandescent, molten materials erupted from a
volcano
 ASHFALL

-showers of fine- to coarse-grained volcanic materials and other airborne

products of a volcanic eruption

-ashfall distribution/dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind

direction

ASHFALL IMPACTS:
Destruction of infrastructure by
widespread ash

Driving through a haze of ash,

Ligao
 LAHARS

-rapidly flowing thick mixture of volcanic sediments

and water; contains 20 - 80% sediment by volume

IMPACT: Burial, excessive

sedimentation by lahars
 Pinatubo Summit MAJOR VOLCANIC ERUPTION
BRINGS ABOUT A DRASTIC
CHANGE

5.5 km3 of pyroclastic flow

materials deposited on slope
Mayon
Taal
Pinatubo
Kanlaon
Bulusan
Jan 25, 2018 Mt. Mayon
EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake
An earthquake is…
The shaking of the earth’s crust caused by a release
of energy.
Fault lines are cracks on the earth’s surface along
which smaller plates move or slip against each other.
Earthquakes can be caused by:
1. Eruption of a volcano
2. Collapse of a cavern
3. Impact of a meteorite
4. Strain built up along boundaries between
plates
 Active fault is…
 A fault which has moved within the last 10,000 years.
 A break in the lithosphere along which movement has
occurred. Most earthquakes occur in this way.
Friction between plates prevents them from moving,
so strain builds up. The rock deforms. Eventually, the
strain becomes great enough that the rock moves,
and returns to normal shape. This causes an
earthquake (elastic rebound theory).
Focus: the point at which the rock first breaks and moves
in an earthquake. Below the surface.
Epicenter: the point on the earth’s surface directly above
the focus.
Seismic Waves

 The energy released in an

earthquake travels in waves.
There are three types:
 Primary waves (P waves)
 Secondary waves (S waves)
 Surface waves (Love and
Rayleigh)
Measuring Earthquakes

Seismograph:
Instrument used to
measure an
Earthquake

Seismogram: The
paper record of the
Earthquake data
(shaking) is called a
seismogram
 Locating Earthquakes

Because P waves and S waves travel at different speeds,

the difference in their arrival times can be used to
determine the DISTANCE away an earthquake occurred.
 Locating Earthquakes

 If you know the distance an earthquake occurred from at

least three different seismic stations, you can determine the
location of the epicenter.
 Triangulation:

Using the S-P time interval

data from 3 stations to
determine the epicenter
 Earthquake Magnitude: strength measured
by the amount of released energy

•Richter Scale by Charles Richter

•Each increase in number represents
10x an increase in power.
•Example: a 4.0 is ten times stronger
than a 3.0
 Describing the strength of an earthquake

1. Intensity
perceived strength of an
earthquake based on relative
effect to people and
structures; generally higher
near the epicenter

2. Magnitude
based on instrumentally derived information
and correlates strength with the amount of
total energy released at the earthquake’s
point of origin
 Three Factors primarily determine what
you feel in an earthquake

• Magnitude
we feel more intense shaking from a
big earthquake than from a small one.

• Distance from the fault

earthquake waves die off as they
travel through the earth so the shaking
becomes less intense farther from the fault.

• Local Soil Conditions

A soft, loose soil will shake more
intensely than hard rock at the same
distance from the same earthquake.
 INSTRUMENTATION

Seismoscope

Seismograph
 Earthquake Hazards

Ground Shaking Caused by the passage of

seismic waves beneath structures.
Ground Rapture: displacement of the ground
due to the violent shaking of the surface.
Vertical Displacement occurs when one side
of the ground goes up or down or both sides
moved with one side going up and the other
going down.
Horizontal Displacement happens when
there is a lateral movement from side to side.
Liquefaction: When the ground turns to quicksand due
to the shaking
Ground Subsidence: lowering of the land surface.
Tsunamis: Are caused by underwater earthquakes that
make a big wave.
TSUNAMI
Giant sea waves resulting from •Series of waves
the disturbance of ocean floor
by an earthquake •Interval between 5-10
minutes

•Could last for hours

•Run-up height could

be as high as 10 meters
or more

•800 kph in deep ocean

but does not affect
vessels

•45 to 80 kph near

shorelines
 Plate Tectonics

usgs
 TRANSFORM DIVERGENT CONVERGENT

Types of Plate Boundaries

 FAULTS
-breaks or zones of weakness in rocks along which
displacements had occurred or can occur again.
They may extend hundreds of kilometers across
the earth’s surface and tens of kilometers
downward TYPES OF FAULT MOVEMENTS

NORMAL FAULT
BEFORE
FAULTING

REVERSE
STRIKE-SLIP
 Seismic Hazard Studies on a Regional Scale

Ground Rupture Liquefaction Prone Landslide Prone Map

Map Map

Ground Shaking Hazard Map Tsunami Vulnerability Map

Scenario Earthquake

Source: West Valley Fault

Magnitude: 7.2

Occurrence: Night time

(early evening)

Weak to strong aftershocks are

expected

MMEIRS, 2004
LANDSLIDES
&
SINKHOLES
DEVASTATING LANDSLIDE
IN THE PHILIPPINES
INDUCED BY HEAVY RAIN
DEVASTATING LANDSLIDE IN THE
PHILIPPINES: APRIL 22, 2011
Campostela Valley on the island of Mindanao
DEVASTATING LANDSLIDE IN THE
PHILIPPINES
SEARCH AND RESCUE
SEARCH AND RESCUE
5 dead as ‘Basyang’ triggers landslides in Surigao
del Sur
February 13, 2018
Naga, Cebu September 20, 2018
LANDSLIDE

The downward movement

of soil, rocks and earth
materials along a slope.
This can be triggered by
certain geologic
conditions and hazards
such as typhoons,
earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
 LANDSLIDES

The term landslide includes a wide range of ground

movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of
slopes, and shallow debris flows.
 Although gravity acting on an over-
steepened slope is the primary reason for a landslide,
there are contributing factors:

1. erosion by rivers or ocean waves create over

steepened slopes
2. rock and soil slopes are weakened through saturation
by heavy rains
3. earthquakes create stresses that make weak slopes
fail
4. earthquakes of magnitude 4.0 and greater have
been known to trigger landslides.
6. volcanic eruptions produce loose ash deposits, heavy
rain, and debris flows
7. excess weight from accumulation of rain, stockpiling
of rock or ore, from waste piles, or from man-made structures
may stress weak slopes to failure and other structures.
 PHYSICS OF LANDSLIDES

 Landslides occur naturally.

 Landslides can be triggered
and/or exacerbated by: 1)
Water (from precipitation during
a tropical storm, hurricane, or
typhoon), or 2) Vibrations (from
earthquake ground shaking.
 These phenomena either
reduce the friction or increase
the force down the slope.
LANDSLIDE HAZARDS
(AKA POTENTIAL DISASTER AGENTS)

 DOWN-SLOPE MOVEMENT OF SOIL

AND/OR ROCK (CAN FORM AN
“EARTHQUAKE LAKE”)
 DOWN-SLOPE FLOW OF WET SOIL
(AKA: MUDFLOW; CAN BURY A
VILLAGE OR MINERS)
 LATERAL SPREADING OF SOIL
AND/OR ROCK (CAN DAMAGE
INFRA-STRUCTURE)
Most of the provinces, except
Palawan, are susceptible to
landslide hazards. The top ten
provinces that are at risk to
earthquake-induced shallow
landslides are:

Ifugao
Lanao Del Sur
Sarangani
Benguet
Mountain Province
Bukidnon
Aurora
Davao del Sur
Davao Oriental
Rizal
Mitigation

• Actions taken to prevent or

reduce the risk to life,
property, social and
economic activities, and
natural resources from
natural hazards.
• Awareness, education,
preparedness, and
prediction and warning
systems can reduce the
disruptive impacts of a
natural disaster on
communities.
 Mitigation

• Mitigation measures such as adoption of zoning,

land-use practices, and building codes are
needed, however, to prevent or reduce actual
damage from hazards.
• Avoiding development in landslide- and flood-
prone areas through planning and zoning
ordinances, for example, may save money in
construction and reduce the loss of life and
damage to property and natural resources.
 SINKHOLES
Are geologic formations caused by
exposure to water, erosion and ground
movement.
 • Sinkholes tend to form
where there are large
deposits of limestone,
carbonate rock, and salt
beds which are exposed to
circulating ground water.
• As rock slowly dissolves,
cave-like spaces develop
under the land surface.
Now, if these lands that are
susceptible to sinkhole
formations have been used
for development, there
• Feb 20, 2012 in
Dumanjug, Cebu
exists a large risk for both
lose of property and
human life.
The only way to detect if an area is susceptible to
sinkhole formation is through core drilling or ground-
penetrating radar. Therefore, all concerned local
government units are urged to conduct Engineering
Geological and Geohazard Assessment (EGGA) to
identify the possible geological hazards that exist within
and in adjacent areas of new development.
End of Part 1
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
AND COASTAL
PROCESSES AND HAZARDS
 HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
PHENOMENA
Process or phenomenon of
atmospheric, hydrological or
oceanographic nature that may
cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
 I. MONSOON

- is a seasonal change in the direction of

the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a
region
- causes wet and dry seasons throughout
much of the tropics.
- always blow from cold to warm regions
 MONSOON WINDS

1.“HABAGAT”
– Southwest
monsoon
2. “AMIHAN”
– Northeast
monsoon
 1. HABAGAT
Characterized by hot and humid weather
with frequent rainfall
Usually starts in May and ends in October
 2. AMIHAN

Characterized by moderate temperature

with little to no rainfall
It is experienced as cool northeast wind
drawing cold dry air from Siberia
Usually starts in November and ends in
February
 II. TROPICAL CYCLONE

CYCLONE – are storms that form in the

Indian Ocean and the Southwest Pacific

TYPHOONS – form in the Northwest

Pacific

HURRICANES – form in the Atlantic

 TROPICAL CYCLONE

 Is used by most countries to

describe cyclonic storms that
originate over tropical oceans
 Locally referred to as “bagyo”
 Often accompanied by heavy
rains which may comes with
localized or widespread
flooding
 Tropical Cyclone
may cause:

1. FLOOD - a
large amount of
water covering
an area of land
that is usually
dry.
2. TORNADO
- locally known as ipo-ipo or buhawi
- a whirling funnel-shaped cloud
- develops in low heavy
cumulonimbus clouds
- lasts for a few minutes but causes
massive damage and injuries
3. Storm surge
 Storm surge

a rising of the sea as a result of

atmospheric pressure changes and
wind associated with a storm.
Storm Surge is the one that hits
Tacloban shorelines
A wave that came from a storm
surges can rise up to 20 feet tall
Caused by Strong Hurricane And
Storms
 Human consequences like injury and death and health
related problems.

 Economic consequences → Damaged properties.

 Environmental degradation
What to do before Storms
and storm surges
 Evacuate if near shorelines
 Look for notice from news and warnings
 Prepare and Practice Evacuation Plans
 Prepare for storm seasons
What to do during storms

 If in shorelines
 Evacuate Immediately to safe places and in
assigned evacuation centers
 Listen to the Authorized persons to lead you
 If in safe places
 Stay in homes
 Watch or Listen for further instructions and
announcements
What to do after a storm

 Look for further announcements from

governments
 If severely affected by the storm or
hurricane look for relief goods if
necessary
 Look for Help
 Check injuries
RECOMMENDATIONS

Fund Raising for the affected

areas
Voluntary works for relief
operations
Debriefing
 The Philippines has a total of 7,107
islands and has one of the longest
coastlines in the world approximately
36,289 km.

 Coastlines comprise the natural

boundary zone between the land
and ocean.
 Coastal ecosystem is significant for it provides the ff:
 Resources such as marine plants and animals, crude oil, natural gas,
minerals, salts, and construction materials (gravel and sand)

 Services (directly and indirectly) like recreation, transportation,

shoreline protection sustaining biodiversity and potential source of
renewable energy (wave, tidal and ocean thermal energy conversion)
 Coastal region undergoes changes which include erosion,
submersion, and salt intrusion.

 COASTAL EROSION – is the wearing away of rocks at the crust.

Caused by a) waves , b) chemical reaction

 SUBMERSION - is the sustainable cyclic portion of coastal

erosion where coastal sediments move from the visible portion of
a beach to the submerged nearshore region, and later return to
the original visible portion of the beach. The recovery portion of the
sustainable cycle of sediment behavior is accretion.
 SALT INTRUSION – is the movement of saline water
into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to
contamination of drinking water sources and
other consequences.
 Political through legislation that define proper zoning, better land
use planning and conversion, proper wastes disposal and
regulated mining and quarrying.
 STRUCTURAL through the use of hard and soft structure include
breakwater, seawall, and groyne.
 COASTAL VEGETATION is recommended to muddy coastal
environments or within tidal zone of estuaries where
mangrove forest and other indigenous shrub species are
commonly found.
Climate-Related Hazards &
Disasters

CLIMATE CHANGE PHEONOMENON

 Climate Change
Is a variation in the pattern of climate properties such as temperature, wind and
precipitation over a long period.
Wind power in the Philippines

Bangui Wind Farm, Burgos Wind Farm,

and Caparispisan Wind Farm in Ilocos
Norte, the Wind Energy Power
System (WEPS) in Puerto Galera, Mindoro
Oriental and Pililla Wind Farm Pililla, Rizal.
Bangui Wind Farm
Burgos Wind Farm
Caparispisan Wind Farm
Solar Energy
What is the cause of Climate Change?
Concentration of carbon and other greenhouse
gases (GHG’s) in the atmosphere leads to global
warming.

Carbon and GHGs are released to the atmosphere

through natural process such as “water cycle,
growth and death of plants and animals, decaying
of biodegradable materials and other natural
hazards.
GHGs emitted from human activities such
as:
- Carbon dioxide (forest, machines, coals and motor
activities.
- Methane (CH4) (livestock raising and flooding of
rice paddies)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O) (intensive agriculture and
animal waste)
- Chloroflourocarbon (CFC’s) (individual process:
ref)
- Ozone (O3) (smoke)
GHGs emitted from human activities such
as:
- Carbon dioxide (forest, machines, coals and motor
activities.
- Methane (CH4) (livestock raising and flooding of
rice paddies)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O) (intensive agriculture and
animal waste)
- Chloroflourocarbon (CFC’s) (individual process:
ref)
- Ozone (O3) (smoke)
 Mitigation Climate Change
It refers to the measure that can
reduce atmospheric
accumulation of GHGs and
thereby delay the predicted
impact of GHGs on global
climate.
This also includes the reduction
of sources of GHG emission or
abatement and the increase of
terrestrial storage of carbon or
sequestration.