Evaporation

Prepared By:

Engr. Dianne Pearl D. Opeña

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION
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Evaporation

➢ process by which water changes

from a liquid to a gas or vapor
➢ primary pathway that water
moves from the liquid state back
into the water cycle as
atmospheric water vapor
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION
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➢ Evaporation from the

oceans accounts for 80% of
the water delivered as
precipitation, with the
balance occurring on land,
inland waters and plant
surfaces.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

➢Vapor pressure
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The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference

between the saturation vapor pressure at the water surface, 𝒆𝒘
and the actual vapor pressure in the air, 𝒆𝒂 .

𝑬𝑳 = 𝑪(𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )
where:
𝑬𝑳 = rate of evaporation (mm/day)
C = constant
𝒆𝒘 , 𝒆𝒂 (mmHg)
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

➢Atmospheric pressure
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Other factors remaining the same, a decrease in the

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barometric pressure, as in high latitudes, increases evaporation.

➢Atmospheric temperature (T)

The higher the temperature, the more evaporation

➢Wind speed (W)

Wind aids in removing the evaporated water vapor from
the zone of evaporation. The higher the wind speed, the more
evaporation.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

➢Heat storage in the water body/ size of the water body

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Deep bodies can store more heat energy than shallow

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water bodies. A deep lake may store radiation energy received

in summer and release it in winter, causing less evaporation in
summer and more evaporation in winter compared to a
shallow lake exposed to a similar situation.

➢Humidity
The lower the humidity, the more evaporation. Relative
humidity can reduce evaporation to zero (no evaporation at all)
when it reaches 100 percent (saturated air).
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT TYPES OF EVAPORATION

➢Soil evaporation
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Evaporation from water stored in the pores of the soil i.e.,

soil moisture.

➢Canopy evaporation
Evaporation from tree canopy.

Total evaporation from a catchment or an area is the summation

of both soil and canopy evaporation.
 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

Evaporimeters
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Water containing pans which are

exposed to the atmosphere and loss
of water by evaporation measured in
them in the regular intervals.
a) Class A Evaporation Pan
b) ISI Standard pan
c) Colorado sunken pan
d) USGS Floating pan
 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

a) Class A Evaporation Pan

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▪ Standard pan of 1210 mm diameter and 225 mm depth used

by the US Weather Bureau and is known as Class A Land
Pan
 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
b) ISI Standard pan
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▪ Also known as modified Class A pan, consists of a pan 1220

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mm in diameter with 255 mm of depth

 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
c) Colorado sunken pan
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▪ 920 mm square length and 460 mm deep

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▪ Made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet and buried into the

ground within 100 mm of the top
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
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d) USGS Floating pan

▪ With a view to simulate the
characteristics of a large body of
water, this square pan (900mm side
and 450mm depth) supported by
drum floats in the middle of a raft is
set afloat in a lake.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
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Meteorological data such as

humidity, wind velocity, air
and water temperatures,
and precipitation are also
measured and noted along
with evaporation
 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:

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The pan is installed in the field, the pan is filled with a known
quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known and the
water depth is measured).

The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of

time (usually 24 hours). For example, each morning at 7 o'clock
a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is measured
simultaneously.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
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After 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth)

is measured.
The amount of evaporation per unit time (the difference between
the two measured water depths) is calculated. This is the pan
evaporation, 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 (in mm/24 hours).
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

The evaporation observed from a pan has to be corrected to get

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the evaporation from a lake under similar climatic and exposure

conditions.

The pan evaporation is multiplied by a pan coefficient, 𝐶𝑝 , to

obtain the lake evaporation.

𝑳𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑪𝒑 × 𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

Pan Coefficient (𝑪𝒑 )

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Type of pan Range of 𝑲𝒑𝒂𝒏 Average value of 𝑲𝒑𝒂𝒏

Class A land pan 0.60-0.80 0.70
ISI pan 0.65-1.10 0.80
Colorado sunken pan 0.75-0.86 0.78
USGS Floating pan 0.70-0.82 0.80
 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
Demerits of evaporation pan:
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1. Pan differs in the heat-storing capacity and heat transfer

from the sides and bottom.
Result: reduces the efficiency (sunken pan and floating pan
eliminates this problem)
2. The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind
action over the surface.
3. The heat-transfer characteristics of the pan material is
different from that of the reservoir.
 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
Dalton-type equation
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𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝒇(𝒖)(𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )

where:
𝑬𝑳 = lake evaporation (mm/day)
𝒆𝒘 = saturation vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mmHg)
𝒆𝒂 = actual vapor pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mmHg)
𝒇 𝒖 = wind speed correction function
𝑲 = coefficient

𝒆𝒂 is measured at the same height at which wind speed (u) is measured

 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
Meyer’s formula
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𝒖𝟗
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 ) 𝟏 +
𝟏𝟔
where:
𝑬𝑳 = lake evaporation (mm/day)
𝒆𝒘 = saturation vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mmHg)
𝒆𝒂 = actual vapor pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mmHg)
𝒖𝟗 = monthly mean wind velocity (kph) at a height of 9m above the ground
𝑲𝑴 = coefficient accounting for other factors
(0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small shallow lakes)

𝒆𝒂 = 𝒆𝒘 × 𝒓𝒆𝒍. 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚
 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
Variation of Wind Speed With Height: The Power Law
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It is known that in the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a

height of 500 m above the ground level, the wind velocity can
be assumed to follow the 1/7 power law as

𝒖𝒉 = 𝑪𝒉𝟏/𝟕
where:
𝒖𝒉 = wind velocity at a height h above the ground
C = constant
𝟗 𝟏/𝟕
𝒖𝟗 = 𝒖𝒉 ( )
𝒉
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS

A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following

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average values of climate parameters during a week:

Water temperature = 20℃

Relative humidity = 40%
Wind velocity at 1.0m above the ground = 16 km/h

Estimate the average daily evaporation from the lake using

Meyer’s formula.
 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
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𝒆𝒂 = 𝒆𝒘 × 𝒓𝒆𝒍. 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚
= 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟒 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝟗 𝟏/𝟕
𝒖𝟗 = 𝒖𝒉 ( )
𝒉
𝟗 𝟏/𝟕
= 𝟏𝟔( )
𝟏
= 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝒎/𝒉
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS

𝒖𝟗
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𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 ) 𝟏 +
𝟏𝟔

𝟐𝟏. 𝟗
𝑬𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔(𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟒 − 𝟕. 𝟎𝟐) 𝟏 +
𝟏𝟔

𝑬𝑳 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟕 𝒎𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
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An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan

coefficient of 0.80 on the basis of calibration against controlled
water budgeting method. If this pan indicated an evaporation of 72
mm in the week under question,
a) Estimate the accuracy of Meyer’s method relative to the pan
evaporation measurements
b) Estimate the volume of water evaporated from the lake in that
week
 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS

Daily evaporation as per pan evaporimeter

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𝟕𝟐
= × 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝟕
Error by Meyer’s formula
𝟖.𝟐𝟑−𝟖.𝟗𝟕
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟗%
𝟖.𝟐𝟑

Considering the pan measurements as basis, volume of water

evaporate in the lake in 7 days
𝟖.𝟐𝟑
=𝟕× × 𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒, 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION ESTIMATION
The analytical methods for the determination of lake
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evaporation can be broadly classified into three categories as:

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a. Water Budget Method

b. Energy Budget Method

c. Mass Transfer Method

 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION ESTIMATION

Water Budget method:

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𝑷 + 𝑽𝒊𝒔 + 𝑽𝒊𝒈 = 𝑽𝒐𝒔 + 𝑽𝒐𝒈 + 𝑬𝑳 + ∆𝒔 + 𝑻𝑳

where:
P= daily precipitation
𝑽𝒊𝒔 = daily surface inflow into the lake
𝑽𝒊𝒈 = daily groundwater flow
𝑽𝒐𝒔 = daily surface outflow from the lake
𝑽𝒐𝒈 = daily seepage outflow
𝑬𝑳 = daily lake evaporation
∆𝒔 = increase in lake storage in a day
𝑻𝑳 = daily transportation loss
 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION ESTIMATION

Energy Budget method:

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𝑯𝒏 = 𝑯𝒂 + 𝑯𝒆 + 𝑯𝒈 + 𝑯𝒔 + 𝑯𝒊
where:
𝑯𝒏 = net heat energy received by the water surface
𝑯𝒃 = back (long wave) radiation from the water body
𝑯𝒂 = sensible heat transfer from the water surface to the air
𝑯𝒈 = heat flux into the ground
𝑯𝒔 = heat stored in the water body = 𝝆𝑳𝑬𝑳 (𝐸𝐿 = evaporation; L = latent heat
of evaporation; 𝜌 = mass density of the fluid)
𝑯𝒊 = net heat conducted out of the system by water flow (advected energy)
 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF EVAPORATION ESTIMATION

Energy Budget method: 𝑯𝒏 = 𝑯𝒂 + 𝑯𝒆 + 𝑯𝒈 + 𝑯𝒔 + 𝑯𝒊

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𝑯𝒏 = 𝑯𝒄 𝟏 − 𝒓 − 𝑯𝒃

𝑯𝒄 𝟏 − 𝒓 = incoming solar
radiation into the a surface
of reflection coefficient
(albedo) r

*energy is in 𝐜𝐚𝐥/𝒎𝒎𝟐 /𝒅𝒂𝒚

 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evaporation + Transpiration
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This phenomenon describes transport of

water into the atmosphere surfaces,
including soil (soil evaporation), and
vegetation (transpiration).

Evaporation and transpiration occur

simultaneously and there is no easy
way of distinguishing between the two
processes.
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Potential Actual
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Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration
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(PET) (AET)

A measure of the ability of

The quantity of water that
the atmosphere to remove
is actually removed from
water from the surface
the surface through the
through evaporation and
processes of evaporation
transpiration assuming no
and transpiration
control on water supply
 ESTIMATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Catchment water balance
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𝑬𝑻 = 𝑷 − ∆𝒔 − 𝑸 − 𝑫

where:
𝑬𝑻 = actual evapotranspiration
𝑷 = precipitation
∆𝒔 = change in water stored within the drainage basin/ catchment
𝑸 = stream flow
𝑫 = groundwater recharge
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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