Slang

Slang is mainly an informal language that is more common in speech than in writing, often the
creation of those who despise and disregard conventions and hanker after novelties of expression in
the belief that it shows originality and independence. Sometimes, slang terms (informal,
non-standard language) acquire respectability and pass into the literary language. Many good and
respectable words in modern English first originated as slang, e.g. chap, coax, jilt, pluck, pinch,
kidnap.

English as a Global Language

In this age of rapid globalization and mass migration, a link language for the purpose of international
communication has become the need of the hour. Artificial languages like Esperanto, Ido and Novial
were created to serve this purpose; but they did not gain currency. Hence English, which is
extensively used, has become the lingua franca. As David Crystal observes, ‘English is now the
language most widely taught as a foreign language—in over 100 countries, such as China, Russia,
Germany, Spain, Egypt and Brazil—and in most of these countries, it is emerging as the chief foreign
language to be encountered in schools, often displacing another language in the process.’

From the status of a language of ‘small reach’ in the sixteenth century, English has, over the years,
evolved into a universal language of communication at economic, commercial, political and cultural
levels. Moreover, English is the mother tongue outside England too. English colonization that
spanned the period from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century empowered both Britain and
her language. English came to be spoken in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. In
the former colonies of Britain like India, Africa, and Sri Lanka, English is an important medium of
communication. Communication is in English in the two powerful domains of science and commerce
in advanced countries like China and Japan. In these countries, English is taught as a foreign
language, but is not accorded a special administrative status. The special role of English as a language
recognized in every country has conferred a global status on English.

The standard form of English had already been in existence even before the use of English became
widespread. This must be the reason why English survived as a single language. There are marked
differences in pronunciation and vocabulary among American English, Canadian English, Australian
English and the parent British English and the different non-native varieties. But these differences do
not, in any way, hamper mutual intelligibility, The distinguished Swedish philologist R.E. Zachrisson
has pointed out several factors that strengthen the possibility of English becoming a global language.
In the first place, English is the language of two very progressive countries in the world—England and
USA. It is second only to Mandarin Chinese in having the largest number of speakers in the world.
Nearly a quarter of the world’s population is competent or fluent in English. According to an estimate
made in the late 1990s there were 1.5 billion speakers of English. No other language has come
anywhere near this phenomenal progress. Above all, its cosmopolitan vocabulary, natural gender and
inflectional simplicity enable foreigners to master English without much difficulty, Nevertheless the
notoriously difficult spelling, the lack of correlation between spelling and pronunciation and the
complexities of English words and idioms stand in the way of the acquisition of English. C.K. Ogden
invented Basic English to overcome some of these difficulties. Basic English is a selection of one
thousand words which can express the minimum of concepts and thoughts required for international
communication. But it lacks the dynamism and expressive vitality of English. In an attempt to simplify
English spelling along phonetic lines, R.E. Zachrisson invented Anglic without departing much from
the existing system. Though philologists supported it, Anglic did not become popular. So English
continues to hold her sovereign position among the languages of the world.

There are several countries where English is recognized as an official language. In these countries,
English serves the purpose of communication in government affairs, the law courts, the education
system and the media. International bodies like the UNO, UNESCO, UNICEF, IAEA and WHO recognize
English as an official language. Even where English has no official status, it has the pride of place in
foreign language teaching. The accelerating boom in advertising and broadcasting, Pop music, the
phenomenal progress in information technology, scientific advancements, the enhanced modes of
international travel and the thriving ELT industry are added reinforcements to the status of English as
a global language.

Thus it can be said with certainty that no other language is so widespread or has a larger number of
speakers than English. The socio-economic power nexus of the English, the official status English
enjoys among non-speakers, the proliferation of new ‘Englishes’ and the emphasis given to English
education, all privilege the position of English over other languages in the world and ensure the
global status of English in the years to come.” (from A Concise History of English Language and
Literature)

_______

The influence of any language is a combination of three main things: the number of countries using it
as their first language or mother-tongue, the number of countries adopting it as their official
language, and the number of countries teaching it as their foreign language of choice in schools. The
intrinsic structural qualities of a language, the size of its vocabulary, the quality of its literature
throughout history, and its association with great cultures or religions, are all important factors in the
popularity of any language. But, at base, history shows us that a language becomes a global language
mainly due to the political power of its native speakers, and the economic power with which it is able
to maintain and expand its position.

English is the nearest language there has ever been to a global language. Its worldwide reach is much
greater than anything achieved historically by Latin or French, and there has never been a language
as widely spoken as English. In the fields of business, academics, science, computing, education,
transportation, politics and entertainment, English is already established as the de facto lingua
franca.

A global language arises mainly due to the political and economic power of its native speakers. It was
British imperial and industrial power that sent English around the globe between the 17th and
20th Century. The legacy of British imperialism has left many counties with the language thoroughly
institutionalized in their courts, parliament, civil service, schools and higher education
establishments. In other counties, English provides a neutral means of communication between
different ethnic groups.

But it has been largely American economic and cultural supremacy - in music, film and television;
business and finance; computing, information technology and the Internet; even drugs and
pornography - that has consolidated the position of the English language and continues to maintain it
today. American dominance and influence worldwide makes English crucially important for
developing international markets, especially in the areas of tourism and advertising, and mastery of
English also provides access to scientific, technological and academic resources which would
otherwise be denied developing countries.

Intrinsic features of the English language that set it apart, and make it an appropriate choice as a
global language are:

● The richness and depth of English's vocabulary

● It is a very flexible language in respect of word order, the ability to phrase sentences as active
or passive and the ability to use the same word as both a noun and a verb. New words can
easily be created.
● Its grammar is generally simpler than most languages. No noun genders, no compulsory use
of article, no distinction between familiar and formal addresses, rarely used case forms for
nouns etc.
● The cosmopolitan character of English gives it a feeling of familiarity and welcoming
compared to many other languages
● Reasonably concise compared to many languages despite a tendency towards jargon
● The absence of coding for social differences makes English seem more democratic
● The extent and quality of English literature throughout history marks it as a language of
culture and class. As a result, it carries with it a certain legitimacy, substance and gravitas
that few other languages can match.
______________

Accent and Dialect

A dialect is the variety of a language used by a particular group of individuals ('dia'- two, 'lect'-variety
of language). It is a specific form of a given language spoken in a certain locality, showing sufficient
differences from the standard form and therefore considered a distinct entity. The differences may be
in grammar, vocabulary and/or pronunciation. At the same time, the differences are not too much to
be regarded as a different language.
The dialect spoken in a particular geographical area Is called a regional dialect. Yorkshire, Kentish,
Derby etc. are regional dialects of English. Braj bhasha and Khari Boli are regional dialects of Hindi.
There are national varieties of English like American English, British English, Canadian English,
Australian English etc. and each of these has dialectal varieties within it.
Within a regional dialect, there may be other variations based on the education, occupation and
socio-economic status of the speakers. Dialects based on social stratifications are called social
dialects or sociolects. Within these, there are class dialects, caste dialects and urban/rural dialects.
Class dialects are based on the social class to which the speakers belong. For example, the
aristocrats in London use one variety of English which is distinct from the one used by the people of
the lower classes (like the Cockney dialect used by the character Eliza in Shaw's Pygmalion). The
branch of linguistics concerned with the study of dialects is called dialectology.
When differences in speech are predominantly confined to phonology (which includes differences of
pronunciation, stress, intonation etc.), it is called an accent. The major difference between a dialect
and an accent is that while accent is usually concerned only with phonology, a dialect may show
variation in grammar and vocabulary also.
Bilingualism
When people belonging to different cultural and linguistic backgrounds happen to live together in the
same geographical area, their frequent interactions result in the creation of bilingual or multilingual
societies. In such societies, a large number of people are proficient in more than one language. Apart
from their mother tongue, they attain proficiency in the language/s used in the area. For example,
most people in Canada are bilingual as they speak both French and English. The concept of domain
is useful while studying bilingualism. Generally, one language is associated with one domain. For
example, in the family domain, parent-child interaction would be in the mother tongue and in the office
domain it may be in English.
Register
A language variety marked by certain features that are typical of certain disciplines/fields/occupations
is referred to as register. Thus, we have the legal register, the journalistic register, the medical register
and so on. For example, a lawyer employs the legal register while talking to fellow lawyers on a legal
topic. He/she does not use this register while talking to his/her spouse and children at home.
Each profession or trade tends to develop its own linguistic idiosyncrasies. Register is a variety of
language correlated with the performer’s social role on a given occasion.

Within a register, there are different styles depending on the speaker’s intention and the relationship
between the speaker and the listener. In a religious gathering, we may be serious in our speech; in a
seminar, we may be analytical; and in a restaurant, casual. Our treatment of a topic may be formal or
casual according to a situation. Hence, register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose
or in a particular social setting.

Jargon is one of the defining features of a register. It is special technical vocabulary associated with a
specific area of work or interest. Thus, we have the medical jargon, business jargon, military jargon
and internet jargon (BRB, IDK, LOL, ROFL).

Slang

Slang or 'colloquial speech’ refers to words or phrases that are used instead of everyday speech by
younger speakers or certain social groups. It is usually used by people who are outside higher-status
groups. The use of the word 'bucks' for money, 'dope' and 'kickass’ for very good etc. are examples of
slang.

World Englishes

English has emerged as the most popular language among the languages of the world today, It is
either a first language or an unofficial second language in many parts of the world. The cultural
backgrounds and the socio-linguistic contexts have created indigenous varieties of English, especially
in the former colonies of Britain or in those nations influenced by the United States. All these varieties
come under the common referent World Englishes. It is the expansion of the British Empire that led to
the spread of English all over the world, Eventually the larger British colonies became independent.
Their independence, together with the rising importance of the United States, enhanced the value of
the regional varieties of English. Hence each of these nations argued that their variety of English is
distinct and should be considered on a par with the standard variety of English. It is not possible to
gauge the total number, as new varieties of English are consistently being developed.

The users of English can be grouped under three heads:

(i) where English is the native language or the language spoken by the majority of the people there,
as in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia,

(ii) where English is an additional or second language as in India, Singapore and Nigeria, and

(iii) where English is used solely for international purposes as in Germany and Japan.

American English

The English language as used in the USA is referred to as American English. The language was
brought to America by colonists from England (Pilgrim Fathers) who settled there in the 17 century. th

This was followed by further migrations in the 18 and 19 centuries. By the end of the 19 century,
th th th

when the country became internationally significant, American English gained wide popularity.

Vocabulary

The largest divergences between American and British English are in vocabulary. The colonists from
England were greatly impressed by the physical features of the continent and invented a series of
new words like bluff, notch, watershed, landslide, backwoods etc. The French colonists invented
words like bureau, pumpkin etc and from the Dutch came words like cookie, boss, and sleigh and
from German came words like loaf, loafer, hamburger, noodle etc.

The same object or idea may be referred to by different words in the two languages.
British American
English English
Railway station Railroad depot
lift Elevator
petrol Gasoline
pavement Sidewalk
rubber Eraser
lorry Truck
Colloquialisms such as 'cool', 'swell', 'groovy' etc. are American in origin. Other usages that are
American in origin are 'white collar', 'employee', 'motel', 'movie',
'supermarket', 'hardware store’, 'senior citizen’ etc.
Spellinq
American spelling often differs in small ways from that which is customary in England .The English
words 'honour', 'colour', 'favour' etc. are written without the '๔ in American English ('honor', 'color',
'favor'). For words like 'centre', 'fibre', 'metre', the Americans use spellings like center, fiber and meter.
The use of the letter's' instead of 'c' is also common in American English ('defense' for 'defence').
Americans sometimes use one consonant where the English write two ('traveler' for 'traveller' and
'canceled' for 'cancelled'). Other variations include spellings like 'plow' and 'program' for 'plough' and
'programme'.
Pronunciation
1. The most noticeable difference is the substitution of /a:/ by /ae/. For example, the words 'fast',
'path' and 'half are pronounced /faest/, /pae0/ and /haef/ in American English
2. The sound /D/ in words like 'god' and 'hot' is replaced /a:/ in American English as /ga:d/ and
/ha:t/
3. In RP, the letter 'r' is silent before consonants and in word final position. In American English,
'r' is pronounced in all positions.
 4. The sound /j/ is dropped in words like 'tune' (/tu:n/) and 'news' (/nu:z/).
5. The sound /t/ is often lost in 'nt' combination. For example, /wints/ becomes /wina/. Similarly
'international' is pronounced without the /t/.
The stress pattern used in American English is different from the one used in British English. As a
result, American speech moves slower than British English speech. American intonation does not rise
and fall as suddenly as in British English. There is also a certain nasal tone associated with American
pronunciation.
Grammar
There are considerable differences between British and American grammar. When a British person
asks, "Have you got the time?”, an American would ask "Do you have the time?". Americans use
'gotten', the old past participle of the word 'get' alongside the modern 'got'. They use both 'got' and
'gotten' differently. When an American says "I’ve gotten it", the word means acquired. When he says
"I've got it", it means possess.
When the indefinite pronoun 'one' is used in a sentence as the subject, the word 'one' should be used
throughout. So the sentence "One should take care of one’s books" is correct in British English, but in
American English "One should take care of his books" is acceptable and used more frequently.
Prepositions too are sometimes used differently in British and American English. An Englishman lives
in Oxford Street, whereas an American lives on Oxford street.

Different from

General Indian English

English continues to hold a privileged position in India, even today, several years after the exit of the
British colonists.
Pronunciation
Certain common phonological features of the varieties of Indian English have been identified and a
variety called General Indian English (GIE) has been formulated as a standard.
1. The stress system of English is a real problem to Indian speakers. This is because English is
a stress-timed language whereas the Indian languages are syllable-timed.
2. a) The RP vowel /ae/ is very often replaced by /a:/. RP /haepi/ is pronounced as /ha:ppi/
b. /3:/ is replaced by /A/. For example, /h3：t/ (hurt) in RP is pronounced as /hArt/.
a. The vowel /□:/ as in ball, caught is unfamiliar to many Indians. It is usually replaced by /0:/
a. The diphthongs /du/ and /ei/ are replaced by /0:/ and /e:/ respectively.
a. The alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ are replaced by retroflex plosives.
a. The letter 'r' is always pronounced in Indian English. For example, 'car* is RP is pronounced
/ka:/. In GIE, it is /ka:r/
a. No distinction is made between /v/ and /w/ and /s/and /z/.
a. The voiceless plosives /p/, /t/ and /k/ which are aspirated in the initial position in
RP are unaspirated in GIE.
Grammar

1. In grammar, the use of articles is a serious problem. We hear Indians saying 'an university'
and 'an year’.
2. In place of simple present tense, there is a tendency to use present continuous in Indian
English. For example, Indians tend to say 'Mohan is having two houses' instead of 'Mohan has
two houses'.
3. In tag questions, the tag does not tally with the rest of the sentence in Indian English. There is
a tendency to use 'isn't it' or 'yes/no' irrespective of the subject and the kind of clause (positive
 or negative). For example, for the sentence 'He is coming, isn’t he?', Indians tend to say 'He is
coming, isn't it?’ or'He is coming, no?’.
4. In interrogative sentences, the position of the subject and auxiliary item is not changed. E.g.
'What you would like to read?' instead of 'What would you like to read?’
5. There is a tendency to use plurals for uncountable nouns. E.g. Furnitures, scenaries,
informations, advices etc.
6. In Indian English, there is a use of reduplication for emphasis. E.g. 'long long hair', 'hot hot
coffee’ etc.
7. In Indian English, there is a wrong use of infinitive after verbs like 'know'. For example, Indians
usually say 'He knows to swim’ instead of 'He knows how to swim’.
In Indian English, we also come across common errors like the use of phrases like 'more taller’
and 'brother-in-laws', and the wrong use of the word 'only' for emphasis ('She only sang the song'
instead of 'It was she who sang the song’).
Vocabulary
In Indian English, we notice glaring peculiarities in the usage, order of words and the idioms which
may be referred to as Indianism. There are a number of expressions which are bad English to an
Englishman. E.g. 'pin-drop silence', 'cousin brother’, 'good name’, 'colour pencil’ (instead of
'coloured pencil').
There are also hybrid formation in which one element is from an Indian language and the other
from English (E.g. 'village panchayat’, 'kumkum mark', 'holy mantra' ).Similarly, there are a number
of words borrowed from Indian languages and these words have become a part of English
vocabulary. Examples include 'coir', 'jaggery', 'guru', 'yoga', 'puja', 'hartal', 'zindabad', 'curry' etc.
Many English writers like Thackeray, Burke and Kipling have employed Indian words in their
literary works. Similarly, the Indians writing in English also play a considerable role in making the
Indian words and Indian way of life familiar to the English-speaking world.
Australian English
Australian English is a major variety of the English language and is used throughout Australia. It has a
short history, reflecting around two hundred years of European settlement. Australian English started
diverging from British English after the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788. The
earliest form of Australian English was first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the colony
of New South Wales. Initially, a majority of the British colonies in Australia were occupied by Irish
convicts and several words of Irish origin were adopted into the language. Some elements of
aboriginal languages have also been incorporated into Australian English.
Pronunciation
The most noticeable feature of the Australian accent is its homogeneity. However, three main varieties
are generally recognised—Broad Australian, General Australian and Cultivated Australian. Of these,
Cultivated Australian closely resembles British RP. The major features of Australian English
pronunciation are:
1. Australian English is non-rhotic (excludes /r/ before a consonant). So 'carpet' is articulated as
/ka:pit/ in British English, but /ka:rpit/ in Australian English.
2. Vowels in Australian English are closer and more frontal than in RP. The vowel /a/ is frequently
used, even replacing /1/ in certain positions. E.g. 'boxes’ (/bDksiz/ in RP) pronounced as
/bDksaz/.
3. Some diphthongs are pronounced in different ways in Australian English. For example, /ei/
becomes /AI/ as in 'day' (/dAi/).
4. In Australian English, it Is common for speakers to use the rising intonation even while uttering
a declarative sentence.
Vocabulary
Australian English incorporates many words that are considered to be unique to the country. One of
the best known of these is 'jackaroo', a type of agricultural worker. The words 'kangaroo', 'boomerang'
and 'wallaby' have become international.
The Australian gold rushes gave rise to the word 'dinkum' which means 'true' or 'genuine'. The
derivative 'dinky di' also means 'true'. A dinky di Aussie means 'a true Australian’. There are several
words associated with the flora and fauna of the region and the occupation of stock raising. 'Mullock'
(mining refuse), 'redfin' (a fish) and 'budgerigar' (a parakeet) are some of the words that Australia has
contributed to the language.
Australian English includes several slang words and hypocorisms. An example is the word 'bung'
which means broken. 'Gone bung’ refers to a piece of equipment that has become useless and ‘bung
leg' means injured leg. Hypocorisms include 'brekkie' (breakfast), 'bickie' (biscuit), 'tinnie' (a can of
beer) and 'roughie' (hooligan).
Grammar and Spelling
In terms of grammar and spelling, there is not much difference between standard Australian English
and British English. However, in some cases, American spellings are preferred. While British spellings
are used for words like 'analyse', 'install', 'colour' etc., American spellings is followed for words like
'enroll', 'program', 'encyclopedia' etc.
Speakers of Broad Australian tend to use 'me' and 'my' interchangeably as in "They arrested me boy".
The use of double negative is also common (as in "I don’t have no money). Speakers of Broad
Australian also tend to omit the auxiliary 'have' (as in "I got to go"), use 'don't' in place of 'doesn't'
("She don't like us”) and sometimes end sentences with 'but'.