ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

What is Artificial Intelligence?

According to the father of Artificial, John McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of making
intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs Intelligence”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.
AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide, and work while
trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent
software and systems.
Goals of AI
● To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn, demonstrate,
explain, and advice its users.
● To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand, think, learn,
and behave like humans.

Programming Without and with AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways:

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program with AI can answer
the specific questions it is meant to solve. the generic questions it is meant to solve.

Modification in the program leads to AI programs can absorb new modifications by putting highly
change in its structure. independent pieces of information together. Hence you can
modify even a minute piece of information of program
without affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may It is Quick and Easy to do program modification.
lead to affecting the program adversely.

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Benefits and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence
People fear artificial intelligence, but balancing AI pros and cons suggests that it is a necessary evil – and
even vital in places.
Pros of Artificial Intelligence:
The pros of artificial intelligence are numerous.
1) Mundane tasks: humans get bored, machines don't. Let them do the humdrum jobs (jobs that are lacking
excitement or variety; boringly monotonous). "A.I. allows for more intricate process automation, which
increases productivity of resources and takes repetitive, boring labor off the shoulders of humans.
2) Faster actions and decisions: A.I. and cognitive technologies(as thinking, reasoning, remembering,
imagining, learning words, and using language) help in making faster actions and decisions. Areas like
automated fraud detection, planning and scheduling further demonstrate this benefit.
3) Machine Learning: Big Data means datasets in the petabytes, far too much for a human to sift through.
AI can chew through that data and derive insights from the data much faster than any human could.
4) Error-Free Processing: Error is to human but Computers don't. The only mistakes computers make is
when they aren’t well programed. AI processing will insure error-free processing of data, no matter how
large the dataset. Computers do what they are programmed to do.
5) Taking the Risk: AI-powered machines are doing jobs humans either can't do or would have to do very
carefully. Space exploration is one of them. The Mars rover Curiosity is an example. It is freely roaming
Mars because it examines the landscape as it explores and determines the best path to take. The result is
that Curiosity is learning to think for itself.
6) Better research outcomes: AI-based technologies like computer vision (a field of artificial intelligence
(AI) enabling computers to derive information from images, videos and other inputs) help in achieving
better outcomes through improved prediction, which can include medical diagnosis, oil exploration and
demand forecasting.
7)Unbiased Decisions
Human beings are driven by emotions, whether we like it or not. AI on the other hand, is devoid of emotions
and highly practical and rational in its approach. A huge advantage of Artificial Intelligence is that it doesn't
have any biased views, which ensures more accurate decision-making.

The Cons of Artificial Intelligence

The Cons of Artificial Intelligence provoke a gut-level response.

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1) Job losses: There is no way around it, AI will cost lesser-skilled people their jobs. Robots have already
taken many jobs on assembly lines and as AI gets better at doing complex tasks, even more low-skill jobs
will be taken.
2) A concentration of power: AI could mean a lot of power will be in the hands of a few who are
controlling it. AI de-humanizes warfare as the nations in possession of advanced AI technology can kill
humans without involving an actual human to pull the trigger.

No Creativity

AI cannot learn to think outside the box. AI is capable of learning over time with pre-fed data and past
experiences, but cannot be creative in its approach. A classic example is the bot Quill who can write Forbes
earning reports. These reports only contain data and facts already provided to the bot. Although it is
impressive that a bot can write an article on its own, it lacks the human touch present in other Forbes
articles.
3) Bad calls: AI does not have the ability to make a judgement call and may never get that ability. A really
good example happened in Sydney, Australia in 2014, when there was a shooting and hostage drama
downtown. People began ringing up Uber to get out of the affected area, and because of the surge in demand
in a concentrated area, Uber's algorithms fell back on the trusted economics of supply-and-demand and ride
rates skyrocketed.

The Uber algorithms didn't consider the violent crisis impacting downtown, and affected riders didn't care.
They were livid that they had been gouged at a time of crisis. It forced Uber to reevaluate how it handles
such emergencies. Perhaps in the future it will handle them better, but
4) Judgement calls, part 2: The Uber situation highlights the fact that unless all such solutions are
anticipated and specifically programmed to be out of bounds, an AI can arrive at a situation and implement
it to the detriment of people or the environment. AI can be programmed with a benign goal but implement
it in a perverse manner just because the solution is logical and expeditious. E.G. If there is a problem with
the food supply, an AI's solution may be to reduce the population by any means available rather than find
ways to increase food production or decrease food waste.
In short: AI still isn't all that smart.

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APPLICATIONS OF AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as –

1. AI in Astronomy: - Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.

2. AI in Healthcare: - Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than
humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help
can reach to the patient before hospitalization.

3. AI in Gaming: - AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games
like chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI in Finance: - AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into financial
processes.

5. AI in Data Security: - The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing
very rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.

6. AI in Social Media: - Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage massive
amounts of data.

7. AI in Travel & Transport: - AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of
doing various travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and
best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like
interaction with customers for better and fast response.

8. AI in Automotive Industry: - Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to
their user for better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant. Various
Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your journey more safe and
secure.
9. AI in Robotics: - General robots are programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with
the help of AI, we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-

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 programmed. Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot
named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like humans.
10. AI in Entertainment: - We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the
recommendations for programs or shows.

11. AI in Agriculture: - Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for
best result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is applying
AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis.

12. AI in E-commerce: - AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming
more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products with
recommended size, color, or even brand.

13. AI in education: - AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant. AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for
students, which will be accessible easily at any time and any place.
Other Areas include:

Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine
can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural
language spoken by humans.

Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special
information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.
Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer.
For example, A spying aero plane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial information or
map of the areas. o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait made by
forensic artist.
Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a
pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.
Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to detect
physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure.
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They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they
are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century –
Year Milestone / Innovation
1923 Karel Čapek play named ―Rossum's Universal Robots‖ (RUR) opens in London, first use of the
word "robot" in English.
1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.
1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.
1950 Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and published Computing
Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a
search.
1956 John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first running AI
program at Carnegie Mellon University.
1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.
1964 Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand natural language well
enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.
1965 Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries on a dialogue in
English.
1969 Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot, equipped with locomotion,
perception, and problem solving.
1973 The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the Famous Scottish Robot,
capable of using vision to locate and assemble models.
1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.
1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.
Case-based reasoning, Multi-agent planning, Scheduling
1990 Data mining, Web Crawler, natural language understanding and translation
Vision, Virtual Reality, Games

1997 The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry Kasparov

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2000 Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet, a robot with a face
that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates
meteorites.

AI - Intelligent Systems
While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence is. This chapter covers Idea of
intelligence, types, and components of intelligence.
Meaning of Intelligence
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn from experience,
store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas, use natural
language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, the Intelligence comes in
multifold.
Intelligence Description Example
Linguistic The ability to speak, recognize, and use mechanisms of Narrators,
intelligence phonology (speech sounds), syntax (grammar), and semantics. Orators
Musical The ability to create, communicate with, and understand Musicians,
intelligence meanings made of sound, understanding of pitch, rhythm. Singers,
Composers
Logical- The ability of use and understand relationships in the absence Mathematicians,
mathematical
of action or objects. Understanding complex and abstract ideas. Scientists
intelligence
Spatial The ability to perceive visual or spatial information, change it, Map readers,
intelligence and re-create visual images without reference to the objects, Astronauts,
construct 3D images, and to move and rotate them. Physicists
Bodily- The ability to use complete or part of the body to solve problems Players, Dancers
Kinesthetic or fashion products, control over fine and coarse motor skills,
intelligence and manipulate the objects.
Intra-personal The ability to distinguish among one‘s own feelings, intentions, Gautam
intelligence and motivations. Buddhha

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 Interpersonal The ability to recognize and make distinctions among other Mass,
intelligence people‘s feelings, beliefs, and intentions. Communicators,
Interviewers

You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is equipped with at least one and at
most all intelligences in it.

Categories of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main categorization
which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explain
the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities 1. Weak

AI or Narrow AI:
➢ Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The most
common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.
➢ Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task.
Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its
limits.
➢ Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined range of
functions.
➢ IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach
combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
➢ Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-
driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.
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2. General AI:
➢ General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like a
human.
➢ The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think like a
human by its own. o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI
and can perform any task as perfect as a human.
➢ The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
➢ As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and time to
develop such systems.

3. Super AI:
➢ Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human intelligence,
and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general
AI. o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to reason,
solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
➢ Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems in
real is still world changing task.
Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality
1. Reactive Machines

➢ Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
➢ Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
➢ These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
➢ IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
➢ Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory

➢ Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period.
➢ These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
➢ Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store
recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate
the road.
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3. Theory of Mind
➢ Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact
socially like humans.
➢ This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and
improvement for developing such AI machines.
4. Self-Awareness: - Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will
be super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness. These machines
will be smarter than human mind. Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical
concept.

TYPES OF AI AGENTS
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and capability. All
these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the time. These are given
below:

❖ Simple Reflex Agent

❖ Model-based reflex agent
❖ Goal-based agents
❖ Utility-based agent
❖ Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

➢ The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the basis of the
current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
➢ These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
➢ The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their decision and
action process.
➢ The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the current state to
action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.
➢ Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
➢ They have very limited intelligence
➢ They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state

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 ➢ Mostly too big to generate and to store.
➢ Not adaptive to changes in the environment.
2. Model-based reflex agent
➢ The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the situation.
➢ A model-based agent has two important factors:
➢ Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called a Model-based agent.
➢ Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept history.
➢ These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the model they
perform actions.
➢ Updating the agent state requires information about:
• How the world evolves
• How the agent's action affects the world.
3. Goal-based agents
❖ The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for an agent to
what to do.
❖ The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
❖ Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the "goal"
information.
❖ They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
❖ These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before deciding whether
the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario are called searching and
planning, which makes an agent proactive.
4. Utility-based agents
❖ These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of utility
measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at a given state.
❖ Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
❖ The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an agent has
to choose in order to perform the best action.
❖ The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each action
achieves the goals.
5. Learning Agents

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 ❖ A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or it has
learning capabilities.
❖ It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically through learning.
oA learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how well the agent is
doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to new
and informative experiences.
❖ Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to improve
the performance.

AGENTS IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The agents sense the
environment through sensors and act on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental
properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors and act upon that
environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting.
An agent can be:

❖ Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors and hand,
legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
❖ Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and
various motors for actuators.
❖ Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and act on
those inputs and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we are
also agents.

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Before moving forward, we should first
know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.

Sensor: Sensor is a device which

detects the change in the environment
and sends the information to other
electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The
actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric
motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels,
arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and
actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their
goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

❖ Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

❖ Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions. o

❖ Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.

❖ Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way to
maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use for
game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

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For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning
algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong action,
an agent gets a negative reward.
Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.
Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on
the basis of following points:

➢ Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

➢ Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
➢ Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
➢ The sequence of percepts.
Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.
Structure of an AI Agent
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure
of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

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