See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/384060456

Identification of PV Fault Classes Using Intelligent Method KNN (K-Nearest

Neighbours)

Article in International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation · September 2024

DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI.2024.1108093

CITATIONS READS

0 78

4 authors, including:

Godfrey Benjamin Zulu Godfrey Murairidzi Gotora

Mulungushi University University M'Hamed Bougara of Boumerdes
2 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS 3 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Godfrey Benjamin Zulu on 21 September 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Identification of PV Fault Classes Using Intelligent Method KNN (K-

Nearest Neighbours)
Godfrey Benjamin Zulu1, Dr. C. Kara Mostefa Khelil2, Godfrey Murairidzi Gotora3, Taane Zahreddine2
1
Mulungushi University, Department of electrical and electronics engineering
2
Université Djilali Bounaama Khemis Miliana
3
Arrupe Jesuit University, School of Engineering and ICT
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2024.1108093
Received: 06 August 2024; Accepted: 13 August 2024; Published: 15 September 2024

ABSTRACT
Throughout many developing nations of our humble planet, renewable energy is a hot topic. Every country at
this very moment is trying to move away from fossil fuels like petrol to complete renewable energy sources
especially Photovoltaic systems.

The reliability and efficiency of renewable energy systems is now a frequent topic of discussion. Like all
systems of production, renewable energy systems are subject to failures and defects in their normal operating
functions with regards to the amount of power output. These systems break down and deteriorate during the
period of their operation. This is why a system of diagnostic is required whose many objectives is to provide
indicators with the given valuables like temperature, solar irradiation, voltage and current output to detect the
faults and thus maintain the energy production at optimum.

The work in progress relates to the diagnostic of faults in the PV systems using artificial intelligent methods
particularly the K-nearest Neighbour algorithm.

Keywords: Photovoltaic generator, faults, detection, diagnostic identification, KNN

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Since the dawn of civilization, mankind has looked at the sky and wondered if it’s possible to obtain energy
from the stars especially our nearest star, the sun. So as we progressed as a civilization, we begun to use
different energy sources to help with our daily energy consumption. Among these energy sources were fossil
fuels like petrol, diesel, hydro carbons and natural gas.

For a time being we thrived on fossil fuels and hydro carbons until we discovered they were not the best of
energy sources. They polluted and still continue to pollute our environment by the emission of carbon dioxide
(𝐶𝑜2 ) which causes the greenhouse effect. [1]

Since 1990s, Man has worked hard to discover various ways we to harness the solar energy from the sun and
the most prominent way he has done this is through Photovoltaic systems. Today PV systems are everywhere
and continue to be a subject of discussion in the aspect of renewable energy. [2]

Despite the PV systems having high efficiency rate, ideal for the environment and ease of use, they are often
accompanied by system defaults which may not always be detected on time hence the use of Artificial
intelligence algorithms like KNN, Naïve Bayes and probabilistic methods to classify different faults. In our
work, we will focus more on KNN algorithm and how we can apply it to categorize different faults detected in
PV systems at last give an example of a Mat-Lab simulation of the system. [3]

Page 1202
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Our work includes five chapters that explain in detail the PV class systems, PV faults, different methods used
to detect faults, the KNN algorithm and the conclusion from the experimental simulation using a PV set-up of
the parameters of our choosing in comparison to already existing ones.

INTRODUCTION
Faults in any components (modules, connection lines, converters, inverters, etc.) of photovoltaic (PV) systems
(stand-alone, grid-connected or hybrid PV systems) can seriously affect the efficiency, energy yield as well as
the security and reliability of the entire PV plant, if not detected and corrected quickly. In addition, if some
faults persist (e.g. arc fault, ground fault and line-to-line fault) they can lead to risk of fire. Fault detection and
diagnosis (FDD) methods are indispensable for the system reliability, operation at high efficiency, and safety
of the PV plant. In this paper, the types and causes of PV systems (PVS) failures are presented, then different
methods proposed in literature for FDD of PVS are reviewed and discussed; particularly faults occurring in PV
arrays (PVA). Special attention is paid to methods that can accurately detect, localize and classify possible
faults occurring in a PVA. The advantages and limits of FDD methods in terms of feasibility, complexity, and
cost-effectiveness and generalization capability for large-scale integration are highlighted. [4]

Improving the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) systems has gained priority in current research due to the large
volumes of PV panels installed. Moreover, the remarkable efforts made to investigate different methods of
diagnosing PV failures have multiplied, giving additional impetus to research on the efficiency of PV systems.
However, most of these methods are limited in the number of faults that can be identified; some are expensive
and complex, and others require huge amounts of data to train. In this paper, a simple and robust multivariate
statistical analysis method is proposed for the diagnosis and identification of faults in a PV system. [5]

Fault Classification

In this research, we are going to discuss the most common occurring faults in the photovoltaic installation. The
faults chosen are classified according to their origin, intrinsic or extrinsic in the PV system.

To better understand the faults, we will elaborate more on the intrinsic and extrinsic faults by grouping them in
a table by type of fault, its consequence and its degree of impact (weak, average, strong), also its phase of
origin (Fabrication stage, installation, during process of use) .

Intrinsic Faults:

Table I.1: Intrinsic faults and their consequences [6]

FAULTS CONCEQUENCE CR OC
IT C

Inversion of output links Incorrectly wired module, reduced 60 60

performance % %

Bad orientation and Shady operating area which leads to 40 60

inclination of the modules reduced performance % %

Galvanic couple due to the Corrosion 40 60

mixing of the module junction % %

Bad module ventilation Heating 40 40

% %

Badly fixed module Module displacement 40 40

% %
Reduced performance

Page 1203
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Unwired module Reduced performance 40 40

% %

Cracking Loss of its lightness nature 60 20

% %
Cell deterioration

Decrease in its robust and performance

Rust by water infiltration Cell deterioration, 60 20

% %
Loss of lightness

Poor insulation between Short-circuit 60 20

modules and the inverter % %
Destruction of the module

Fire

Humidity penetration Hot spot 60 20

% %
Leakage current

Reduced resistance of the short circuit

current

Corrosion

Loss of adhesion and insulation

Difference in module Decrease in the performance of light 20 60

performances intensity % %

Cable gland plugs missing on Water penetration 20 60

the connection box % %
Corrosion of the connections

Connection box put upside Water enters the box by plugs 20 60

down % %

Increase in the series Reduced performance 40 60

resistance due to thermal % %
cycle

Deterioration of anti- Reduced performance 40 60

reflective layer % %

Inclination of the modules too Stagnation of water 40 60

low % %
Earth deposit

Mushroom overgrowth

Sealing problem

Degradation of Deterioration of joints 40 20

Page 1204
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

interconnections Reduced performance % %

Augmentation or resistance and heat

Inadequate mechanical Less mechanical effort to support the 40 20

support for the modules modules hence parts start separating % %

Bad mechanical resistance for Deformation of the support system 40 20

the support modules % %

Diffusion of phosphorous to Loss of encapsulation adhesion 40 20

the surface % %

Important leakage current Heating problem 40 20

% %

Overheating of the modules Detachment of the components and 40 20

by the connection box short-circuits of the system. % %

Destruction of the insulation materials

And reduced performance

Extrinsec Faults

Table I.2: extrinsic faults and their effects [6]

Fault Consequence Critic Occur

Accumulation of soil, snow Loss of power 60% 60%

and other substances

Degradation of the modules Reduced performance, 60% 40%

by vandalism
Lack of proper functioning of
the system

Theft of modules Functioning of the PV system 60% 40%

affected

Deterioration of the sealing Sealing losses 60% 20%

joints
Deterioration of cells

Deformation of the frame Infiltration of water 60% 20%

modules

Corrosion of the frame for Deterioration of cells 60% 20%

modules

Delamination Poor performance 60% 20%

Overheating

Lightening Deterioration of the cells 60% 20%

Page 1205
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Storms Torn and broken module 60% 20%

Structure weaknesses to the Torn and broken module 60% 20%

wind

Lightning strikes on Destruction of modules 60% 20%

Partial shade Hot spot 60% 20%

Deterioration of cells

Degradation of the Does not absorb radiation 60% 20%

encapsulation due to properly
ultraviolet
Reduced performance

Degradation due to light Destruction of diodes 40% 20%

intensity
Reduced performance

Voltage sage

Degradation due to heat Reduced performance, 40% 20%

Deterioration of joints and

overheating

Nests of insects or birds on Reduced performance 40% 20%

the modules

Mismatch And Shading Faults

The mismatch and shading faults are the most frequent occurring faults in the PV systems. We are going to
discuss these commonly occurring faults in depth.

Defination:

The mismatch fault is a fault caused by cell grouping which has the non-identical characteristic of I-V. Any
change in the characteristic if I-V will cause tremendous amount of problems.

The shading fault problem is a specific type of mismatch fault because its presence signifies the reduction of
solar radiation received by the solar cells. The change in the parameters affect two principal factors.

Firstly, the cells can have different physical properties caused by the fabrication tolerance, only the tolerance
of power output of the cells are fixed by the fabricator and can vary from +/-3% and +/-5% depending on the
fabricator.[7]

Secondly, the PV cell modules can be exposed to different working conditions caused by different faults. The
parameters affected in this instance can be represented in the table below:

Table I.3: impact of different faults on the parameters of the PV cell [8]

NATURE OF FAULTS PARAMETERS AFFECTED

Torn or broken modules Variation of optimal current I

Shading caused by tree leafs, manure, sand, snow,

Page 1206
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

pollution etc.

Cell heating Variation in temperature T

Degradation of the interconnections Variation in the series resistance R

Cracking

Corrosion of connections between cells

Different module performances Variation of all the parameters of

the cells.
Deterioration of the cells

Penetration of humidity

Commonly Occurring Faults In Pv Site Systems And Installation

We have discussed different types of faults in the previous paragraphs and now it’s time to talk about
commonly occurring problems in PV installations. All the problems mentioned above are experienced in PV
systems but not always and often. For example, it’s not always it snows and corrosion doesn’t happen in a
single night, so while these maybe faults encountered, they may not be the most occurring of them all. Take an
example of a car, a car experiences a lot of faults but a good driver knows where exactly to look for faults in an
event that a car suddenly broke down, similarly a good engineer will start the diagnostic of PV faults with the
following commonly occurring faults in the systems. [9]

Current Faults In Pv Systems (I)

The faults in the PV system can be described as temporally or permanent. The temporally faults are caused by
shading and fouling of the solar cell modules. The permanent faults in the module are:

 The de-lamination.
 The bubbles and water drop on the surface of the cells.
 The yellowing of the cells due to radiation.
 Scratches and burnt cells.

The permanent faults are eliminated by replacing or repairing the destroyed or affected modules. The most
serious and dangerous faults in a photovoltaic system are caused by short-circuits, between the lines,
grounding and arc fault. Other factors which might minimize the power output during production is a point of
maximum power (MPP), the power losses by joule effect in the cables and faulty equipment. The faults in the
photovoltaic system can therefore be classified as the module faults, channels or grid according to the PV
components involved. [9]

Hot Spot Faults

The hot spot faults occur in individual solar modules when they are shaded or broken by mechanical stress.
These cells produce far less electrical current compared to the other cells not affected and can be polarized in
the inverse direction which results in the production of heat by joule effect in the course of production.

This phenomenon affects the cells made from silicon crystalline and generally results in the fouling, shading of
the damaged cells or diodes of the bypass damaged. The hot spot points release energy which increases the
temperature of the surface and consequently the hot spot faults are diagnosed and analyzed by thermal and

Page 1207
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

infra-red. If the hot spot faults persist, it can damage the solar cells and the bypass diodes and provokes short
circuit faults.

Degradation

The degradation of the solar modules facilitates the reduction in the power output as time passes. The
degradation faults can be identified by reading the characteristic I-V of the module.

Partial Shade

The shading faults occur when certain parts of PV solar module receive less radiation compared to the rest of
the module due to obstructions and shadows. Shading can be diagnosed by looking for unexpected current
drops. A shadowing effect gives similar results to open circuit strings but are most often temporally. [10]

Open Circuit Faults

The open circuit faults are reference the faults of interconnection in the sub-systems of the PV generator or
module. It will equally include the disconnections of the cells of the module, the chain of modules or the chain
of the PV electrical grid.

The diagnostic in the PV grid can be done by inspecting the voltage and current indicators. The voltage of the
PV grid remains constant, however, the fault results in the current drop. The open circuit faults can be caused
by the damaged cells, defective diodes and wiring faults.

Short Circuit Faults

All like the open circuit faults, the short circuit faults can be produced in the different sub-systems of the PV
installation. The modules having the short circuit in the chain of production experiences a significant voltage
drop in the grid such that the current of the lines increase exponentially. The same effect is produced when the
short circuit is produced between two branches of the system. An experimental study shows that the short
circuit faults between the modules has harmful effects on the output voltage of the system as the short circuit
of the strings. [11]

Ground Faults

The ground faults are considered to be the most commonly occurring faults in the PV systems. The faults
result from the accidental electrical short circuit between the electrical conductor and the ground. This fault is
principally caused by the wiring insulation. The grounding faults can cause serious harm and risks for the
security of the workers in an event of the electrical arcs of DC currents generated at the point of failure on the
system, the electrical shocks due to ground faults results in less voltage compared to the nominal voltage and
risk fires.

Arc Faults

The involuntary passage of current in the air or in another dielectric is known by the name arc fault. The fault
arcs can be produced by the discontinuity between two electrical conductors having different potential
differences. Arc faults in photovoltaic system can risk serious dangers to the installation.

Line To Line Faults

The line-to-line fault designates the short circuit faults between the conductors of the PV system. The line-to-
line faults can be caused by fault insulation of the wires and mechanical damage. [12]

Page 1208
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Methods Of Detection And Diagnostic Of Pv Systems

Fault analysis and fault detection are important to the efficiency, safety and reliability of solar photovoltaic
(PV) systems. Despite the fact that PV systems have no moving parts and usually require low maintenance,
they are still subject to various fault conditions. Especially for PV arrays (dc side), it is difficult to shut down
PV modules completely during faults, since they are always energized by sunlight in daytime. Furthermore,
conventional series-parallel PV configurations increase voltage and current ratings, leading to higher risk of
large fault currents or dc arcs.

Once PV modules are electrically connected, any fault among them can affect the entire system performance.
This means the PV system is only as robust as its weakest link (e.g., the faulted PV components). In a large PV
array, it may become difficult to properly detect or identify a fault, which can remain hidden in the PV system
until the whole system breaks down. In addition, conventional series-parallel PV configurations increase
voltage and current ratings, leading to higher risk of large fault currents or dc arcs.

There are three methods used for diagnostic of PV systems in the industry:

 Method based on the analysis of current and volt (electrical method)

 Method based on the analysis of other parameters like the I-V curve (also called non electric method)
 Literature Method [13]
 Artificial Intelligence methods [14]

Non-Electrical Methods

There exist many non-electrical methods, destructive or non-destructive for the diagnostic of PV faults in the
module. The main principal fault we can give much attention to is cell cracking. We can cite the methods as
follows: mechanical bending tests, imagery by photo-luminescence, electro luminescence and the test of
thermography. For the diagnostic of PV modules, the method of imagery (thermal camera) infra-red is widely
used.

Figure I.1: certain examples of the detection of PV faults using thermal camera.

There have been most successes in the localization and detection of PV faults using the thermal camera which
are noted as: current leakage in the PV, increase in the resistance of the connection between the modules,
abnormal heating of the cells, and conduction of the bypass diode. This method can equally be applied for the
connections in the junction box and the functionality of the anti-reverse diode. [15]

Electrical Methods

Using electrical methods, the most considered parameters are:

 The current output of the GPV

 The voltage on the terminals of the GPV

Page 1209
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

 The insulation resistance between the positive and negative terminals of the GPV.
It is also possible to add additional parameters like the ambient temperature of the site and sunshine radiation
in the electrical measures. The measures on the AC side are important because they are directly related to the
energy which will be sold. It is necessary to take note of:

 The AC currents
 The AC voltage
 The frequency
 Impedance of the electrical grid as seen by the inverter
Out of these parameters written, it becomes much easier to deduce the following:

 DC instantaneous power
 AC instantaneous power
 Electrical energy produced on different periods (depending on the capacity of the storage system) on
the side of both AC and DC.
We often add the following:

 The functioning duration of the inverter

 The date when put in service
 The CO2 not released in the atmosphere (which is rather economical to the environment). [16]

Literature Methodes

The different methods proposed in the literature method type of detection and localization of PV faults are as
follows:

Reflectometry Method

The reflectometry method is a diagnostic method used to send a signal in the system or on the diagnostic side.
This signal is propagated according to the law of propagation in in the medium in question and it encounters
the discontinuity, and part of its energy is re-transmitted to the point of injection. Analysis of the signal allows
us to deduce the information on the system or medium been considered.

Figure I.2: principal reflectometry method for the detection and localization of PV faults in a string.

Analysis Of Power And Energy Produced

The power or energy measured is compared to the expected output and when there is an important deviation,
we can be certain that there is surely a faulty.

The suggested analysis consists of generating the supplementary attributes on the power drop or energy
produced such as: the duration, the amplitude, the frequency and the drop instances. These same attributes are
equally predetermined for the different faults considered in our study.

In the course of their comparison, the fault whose value attributes are considered similar or close to those
measured are considered as the faults responsible for the drop in the power output. [17]

Page 1210
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Detection of PV faults by means of Artificial Intelligence methods

Introduction

Various factors, including maximum power point tracking error, environmental effects like shading and dust or
snow buildup on the PV surface, wiring losses and aging, and malfunction in other PV components like the
power conditioner unit and the inverter can all have an impact on how well a PV system operates. According
to a monitoring study in [16], faults may cause a PV system to generate roughly 18.9 percent less power
annually. In order to continually analyze the current, voltage, and output power characteristics of a PV system
and find both existing and emerging defects, proper techniques have to be developed especially ones based on
artificial intelligence like the following of the many examples.

Fuzzy Logic method Control Implementation

Among several renewable energy resources, Solar has great potential to solve the world’s energy problems.
With the rapid expansion and installation of PV system worldwide, fault detection and diagnosis has become
the most significant issue in order to raise the system efficiency and reduce the maintenance cost as well as
repair time.

The Fuzzy Control Implementation (FLC) is one of the modern artificial intelligence techniques used in fault
diagnosis in the PV systems. The architecture of the implementation is based on the Max-Min arrangement
procedure with a centroid type for the defuzzification. [24]

Artificial Neural Networks

Artificial neural networks, a pivotal technique of artificial intelligence, have been developed and applied in
many fields including the fault diagnosis of PV systems, due to their strong self-learning ability, good
generalization performance, and high fault tolerance. Artificial neural networks (ANN) are type of machine
learning algorithms that are commonly used for PV fault diagnostic and detection. ANN`s can be trained on
large datasets of PV system performance data to recognize patterns associated with various types of faults. [19]

Deep Learning

Deep learning is a type of machine learning that uses neural networks with multiple layers to learn complex
patterns in data. Deep learning has been shown to be effective in fault diagnosis and detection in PV systems
particularly in cases where there are large amounts of data available. [20]

Genetic algorithms

Genetic algorithms are a type of optimization algorithms that can be used to optimize the parameters of a
diagnostic systems. Genetic algorithms can be used to find the optimal set of parameters for a diagnostic
system that can accurately diagnose faults in a PV system. [21]

Support Vector Machines (SVMs)

The support vector machines are another machine learning algorithms commonly used for PV fault diagnosis
and detection. SVMs are particularly effective in cases where there are multiple types of faults that need to be
distinguished from one another. [22]

Decision Trees

Decision Trees are a type of machine learning algorithm that can be used to create a model of the decision-
making process used in fault diagnosis and detection. Decision trees can be used to identify the most likely
cause of a fault based on the observed system performance. [24]

Page 1211
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Operating Point Analysis

Other comparison between the power and energy produced to that which is expected, the comparison of the
point of actual maximum power (current and voltage corresponding to the maximum power) to that which is
expected can carry much information on the state of the PV system. The rational comparison between these
currents and these voltages gives the two pairs of binary values (0 and 1). Depending on the comparison of
these two pairs of values, the nature of the PV fault can be identified. The four families of problems are as
follows:

o Faulty modules in a string

o Faulty string
o The family of non-discriminant faults: shading, MPPT error and old modules
o False alarms. [25]

These are just some of the AI methods used for fault detection and diagnosis.

The Bayesian Neural Networks

Bayesian neural network (BNN) combines ANN with Bayesian implication. Basically speaking, at BNN level,
the treatment of both weights and outputs as variables and control over-fitting. The final goal of BNN is to
quantify the uncertainties presented by the models, this approach employs the statistical methodology where
the whole data has a probability distribution attached to it, In user interface design software, variables tend to
take a specific value will turn the same result at every access to the dedicated variable. In comparative way, the
Bayesian world can own similar entities as well-known as random variables that will present a various value at
any moment you access it. In other terms, the historical data describe the prior information of the overall
manner with each variable giving its own statistical properties which vary with time. [26]

Basically, Bayesian neural networks focus on marginalization comparing to other ANNs, they estimate by
maximum a posteriori or predictive distribution. In addition, they depend on Markov Chain Monte Carlos,
Variational Inference, and Normalizing Flows technics. Bayesian neural network are useful, in the area where
data are rare, they have the capacity to obtain better results for a large number of labor as well as they can
estimate the uncertainties in predictions. [27]

Analysis Of The Static Chacteristic

Deformation of the current-voltage graph characteristic can be provoked by changing the working conditions
(sunshine or temperature) or by the appearance of one or many faults in the PV system.

Figure I.3: appearance of the faulty graph characteristic of I-V.

Figure Ⅱ.3 shows the faulty graph of I-V characteristic (shading of the module which consists of 36 solar cells
at 50%) compared to the normal working conditions of the normal module. By exploiting the information on
the I-V characteristic, the detection and localization of faults can be realized. [28]
Page 1212
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Symptoms Of The Pv System

Figure I.4: symptoms of the I-V characteristic

The figure Ⅱ.4 shows us how to identify faulty PV modules. From the graph we can extract information such
as current, voltage and power. A normal functioning PV has a particular curve on the graph which we can
compare to the faulty one as shown in the figure above. So in solar installations and solar farms, various soft
wares such as MATLAB, PSIM, Scada and many more can be used to identify changes in the course of normal
working conditions of the PV system. [29]

CONCLUSION
In a world where solar energy has become popular, it’s imperative that engineers and technicians familiarize
themselves with various problems encountered in PV installations in order to maximize the power output,
diagnose and detect problems. It is clear solar power generation is the future of our lovely planet`s energy and
entails much attention is needed on the maintenance of PV systems.

Simulation And Programming Of Knn Algorithm Using Matlab

Introduction

When we human beings are sick, we tend to classify and identify the problem whether the causes are internal
or external and how serious it actually is.

For instance, when we have a stomach ache, there are two possible causes, either internal or external. For
internal causes, it may be ulcers due to the acid in the stomach. For external causes it may be the food we eat,
either way we are able to identify and classify the problem and determine its causes and know whether it is
serious or not. If it is serious we tend to go to the hospital, if not we just take some stomach drugs from a
nearest pharmacy or wait for the problem to go on its own depending on how uncomfortable it is.

Now imagine the same scenario for machines, or more specifically our subject of discussion, PV systems. The
area required for industrial installation of PV systems is huge and therefore engineers and technicians need to
be alerted by the system itself about certain faults and how to identify them. This is the basis of our master’s
dissertation.

The Parameters Of Our Simulation

In order for us to better understand the program of our simulation, we need to know the parameters in question
or rather the values we are trying to change.
Page 1213
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

The parameters in question are therefore temperature, sunlight radiation, voltage and current output.

Now we are going to be using values of temperature, irradiation, voltage and current output in our KNN
algorithm to create a predictive program for our PV system.

The Values Of The Knn Program

As earlier mentioned before in chapter three, our KNN program depends on the values of k, so in order for the
progressive learning of the program to continue, we are required to start with smaller values then advance to
bigger values of k. in our case, we will begin with one till we reach one hundred.

The Knn Program Realised In Matlab Script

The basis of our work in to test a KNN PV program that detects and identifies faults based on the data of the
system. Instead of using the Mat lab KNN tool box, we decided to code our own on MATLAB script in order
to make the program more robust and so it can understand the different values been provided.

We have therefore used data science to classify and organize the data given for solar radiation, temperature,
current and voltage in form of codes. Now the essence of our program is to give the code once a certain value
is asked about its position in the data codes. The data is arranged in terms of training for five days, validation
and test data for three days.

The Graphs Of The Simulation

Input data

The Training Phase for Temperature and solar irradiation

We first run the MATLAB script KNN program for temperature and Solar irradiation to better understand the
relationship between the two variables, and the following are the graphs we obtained:

Figure II.1: the graph of temperature of training phase

Figure II.2: the graph of solar irradiation of training phase

Page 1214
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

In solar renewable energy systems, the out values of voltage and current depend solely on two most important
valuables, solar irradiation and temperature. From the first graph we see the graph of solar radiation recorded
on certain days. The maximum or rather the optimum solar irradiation for the PV system is 1000w/m2.

However due to the valuation of whether (summer, winter, autumn or spring) or time of the day (morning,
afternoon and evening) the temperature fluctuates thereby affecting the current output as shown by figure Ⅳ.4

The Training Phase for Voltage and Current:

Figure II.3: the graph of training voltage

The current program was realized using the values of current in our sorted data and the following graphs were
obtained:

Figure II.4: the graph of training current

From the two graphs above, we can tell that the graphs are not ideal. This is because in reality, the temperature
is not always at the optimum value which is 25 degrees Celsius and hence affects the graph of voltage. This is
defined by one of the faults we earlier mentioned of partial or complete shading. Hence suffice it to say our
system is running at a normal efficient of 65% efficient and for a photovoltaic system that’s just about above
average from the expected efficiency.

Output data of training phase:

Output data of training voltage classification

Page 1215
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.5: the graph of training voltage classification

In the training phase, we had roughly 7388 samples in form of given values as shown by figure 4.5 on the x-
axis. In PV systems, voltage output is directly related to temperature and hence each value of temperature
input has a corresponding value of voltage as an output. This is shown by figure 4.5 and it equally shows the
code values of the relationship between these two variables.

Output data of current classification for training phase:

Figure II.6: the graph of training of current classification

In typical PV systems, it is the solar irradiation that directly affects the current, why? Because solar irradiation
photons excite the electrons of the semi-conductor in PV systems and it is the movement of these electrons that
we refer to as current hence the graph of figure Ⅳ.6. As in voltage and temperature, each value of solar
irradiation has a corresponding value of current and the code of these values in our dataset is what is displayed
by our figure. For example, the set of values of both solar irradiation and current between ``1-2000`` belongs
to code 1.

The Validation Phase

The values tested in program simulation above were for the test data. As mentioned before, our program KNN
works with training, validation and test valuables. We have so far done the simulation for training data and
now we shall move to validation data.
Page 1216
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Input data

The validation Phase for Temperature and solar irradiation

Upon running the program, following graphs were obtained:

Figure II.7: the graph of temperature under the validation phase

Figure II.8: the graph of solar irradiation under the validation phase

As shown by the two graphs, the noisy data has cleared and we are able to see how current is a direct function
of the solar irradiation is. The graphs show how uniformly current is with regards to solar irradiation as
discussed earlier.

The validation Phase for Voltage and current

Figure II.9: the graph of voltage under validation phase

Page 1217
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.10: the graph of current under validation phase

The KNN is a self-learning algorithm that takes time to learn and adapt. But like any learning and project,
before testing whether the program or project is working, we need to be certain that it is. That certainty is
validation, the need to know for sure that something will work.

In our fair case, we have the validation data which we just simulated to get the graphs of temperature and
current, as observed by the two graphs, the voltage output is directly proportional to the temperature. Hence
temperature is a crucial aspect of the PV systems and as such it is necessary to ensure that PV systems are
running at optimum temperature (which is 25 degrees Celsius) and maximize the power output by giving the
optimum voltage in return.

As shown by the two graphs, the noisy data has cleared and we are able to see how current is a direct function
of the solar irradiation is. The graphs show how uniformly current is with regards to solar irradiation as
discussed earlier.

Output data of validation phase:

Output data of Voltage and temperature:

Figure II.11: the graph of validation of voltage classification

Page 1218
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Output data of current classification for validation phase:

Figure II.12: the graph of validation of current classification

Figure IV.11 and figure IV.12 gives us the perfect results were the test data equals the predicted data. We can’t
say that KNN classifier always produces the results of 100% accuracy. This is because the simulation is
completely dependent and based on the given dataset. In the best case scenario like ours, the training data is
equal to the test data hence not much distinction is given by the real output data and the predicted output data.

The Testing Phase

Input data

The test Phase for Temperature and solar irradiation

The following are the graphs obtained from the validated data for testing (Temperature and solar irradiation):

Figure II.13: the graph of temperature under testing phase

Page 1219
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.14: the graph of solar irradiation in test data

As in any good sense of project making, after training and validating the project in question what follows is
test. This is important because it answers the question of whether we have succeeded or not. In our humble
case, we have truly succeeded in creating a working KNN script program because as shown by the two graphs
of solar irradiation and current, these are the same graphs that can be obtained by measuring instruments of
these physical quantities when observed by an oscilloscope. We can therefore be confident that our program
works.

The testing Phase for Voltage and current

Figure II.15: the graph of voltage under test phase

Figure II.16: the graph of current on the phase test data

The above testing phase graphs have exceptionally depicted the results of the two of the most important
parameters in a PV system. The graphs show how actually voltage and temperature graphs looks like based on
seven days obtained data of over 7838 values. These are the ideal graphs for PV systems exposed to the real
world of perturbations such as shading faults, extreme weather, particle accumulation etc.

Page 1220
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

As in any good sense of project making, after training and validating the project in question what follows is
test. This is important because it answers the question of whether we have succeeded or not. In our humble
case, we have truly succeeded in creating a working KNN script program because as shown by the two graphs
of solar irradiation and current, these are the same graphs that can be obtained by measuring instruments of
these physical quantities when observed by an oscilloscope. We can therefore be confident that our program
works.

Output data of test phase:

Output data of Voltage classification for test phase:

Figure II.17: the graph of test of voltage classification

In the figure Ⅳ.17, we notice the thin line between the voltage and the temperature. At the beginning of the
week, the values obtained belonged to code 3 until they stabilized on code 5 before slowing dropping
completely on code 3. So we see that on 2500 samples, the code became constant on three. This represents the
time when the temperature is below optimum and therefore the voltage output is less.

Output data of current classification for test phase:

Figure II.18: the graph of test of current classification

In our final figure of Figure Ⅳ.18, we notice that our range of samples fluctuated between code 1 and code 2.
This indicates a steady rise of current with respect to solar irradiation. When solar radiation becomes constant
during the course of the day, the current follows the pattern and becomes constant as well. As earlier
explained, it is the photons in the solar radiation that excites the electrons in the semi-conductor to create a
potential difference which leads to the circulation of current. The in changing the solar irradiation we equally
change the current and this is shown by our graph, the current follows the pattern of solar irradiation between
code 1 and 2.

Page 1221
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Output of KNN program:

Output KNN of Voltage classification for training phase:

Figure II.19: Training KNN output for voltage classification with scatter plot

Figure II.20: Training KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix

Figure II.21: Training KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix using true positive rate
plot
Page 1222
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

When conducting any experiment, on charges, individual atoms or electrical conduction within a conductor, it
is therefore necessary to create a model to better understand the system we are working with. In our case, we
needed a second simulation of the G-scatter which allowed us to see the distinction between samples which are
in form of data and the number of these samples which are in each code by means of a confusion matrix. In
figure IV.19, we see samples of three different colors representing three codes and how they are spaced.

In figure IV.20, we see the first confusion matrix for the voltage classification. Now this matrix has both the
predicted class and true class. In our theoretical work, it was mentioned that the value and worth of the KNN
algorithm depends on the value of K. the greater the value the more accurate the results will be. Which is why
in figure IV.21 we got the 100% accuracy when we used the value of 1 for K. why you might ask? Let’s use
and example of a phone, imagine you have a mobile smart phone, a computer, a photocopying machine and a
fax machine. And you want to know whether the mobile smart phone is a computer or a phone. We have four
samples in our case (a phone, computer, photocopying machine and fax machine). So our K will be equal to
4,the number of samples. So let’s begin by choosing the value of k to be one, so k= 1 meaning we compare the
smartphone to itself, so is the smartphones a computer when compared to itself or not? The answer is it is
100% a mini portable computer. Think about it, it can type, communication, and basically work in the same
manner a computer does. But let’s choose the value of k=4. We include all the samples, the photocopying
machine, fax machine, mobile smartphone and the computer itself. So when we compare the smartphone to
these four samples, we discover that the smartphone is nearer to the functions of the computer but not the
computer itself, so its true class is nearer to the computer than the fax and photocopying machine.

And that is exactly what we have with our matrices, they show the predicted class (the class we think is the
code for our values) and the real class (the code where our values realy belong to) and the number of samples
in each class.

Output KNN of Voltage classification for validation phase:

Figure II.22: Validation KNN output for voltage classification with scatter plot

Figure II.23: Validation KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix
Page 1223
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.24: Training KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix using true positive rate
plot

In figure IV.22, we now see the scatter plot as we increased the value of k. we see that the samples are now
much further to each other. The distance between each individual sample is the Euclidean distance we spoke of
in chapter three. The closer the distance between samples, the more likely they are to belong to the same code
as shown by the figure.

Output KNN of Voltage classification for test phase:

Figure II.25: Testing KNN output for voltage classification with scatter plot

Figure II.26: testing KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix
Page 1224
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.27: Testing KNN output for voltage classification with confusion matrix using true positive rate plot

Now we consider the results of the voltage classification in the test phase. In figure IV.25 we see the
separation of codes in forms of samples of different colors. Despite the fine distinction, we see that some
samples are closer to another code than where their fellow samples are (samples of the same color code). For
example, between 0 and 50 samples, we see that some bleu samples true class is that of the yellow samples
than their bleu counterparts.

Figure IV.26 gives us the confusion matrix of the number of samples in each code and figure IV.27 illustrates
the accuracy of the classification between the real and predicted classes.

Output KNN of current classification for training phase:

Figure II.28: the output of the current classification plot for the training data

Figure II.29: the output confusion matrix for current training data
Page 1225
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.30: the accuracy of the confusion data matrix for the current training phase

The parameters of interest for our work are of course voltage and current. In figure IV.28, IV.29 and IV.30, we
notice that we are only associated with two codes, code 1 and 2. In figure IV.28 we see the separation of codes
between these two samples and figure IV.29 displays the number of samples in each code by means of a
confusion matrix and finally figure IV.30 the accuracy of our prediction.

II.8.5 Output KNN of current classification for validation phase:

Figure II.31: the output of the current classification validation data

Figure II.32: the output of confusion matrix of the current classification validation data

Page 1226
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.33: the accuracy matrix for the current output of the validation data

The values of our simulation are based on real data obtained on different days which is why it is no surprising
that the accuracy is high. As before only two codes (1 and 2) are of interest in the currents classification and
we see the graph of samples of the two codes in IV.31 and the distribution of the number of samples in figure
VI.32 and the accuracy of our validation phase.

The output Test of the current classification

Figure II.34: the output test data of current classification

Figure II.35: the confusion matrix of the current classification of the test data

Page 1227
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

Figure II.36: the accuracy matrix of the current classification for the test data

Figure IV.34, IV.35, IV.36 shows the final graphs for the model of the output for the current classification. In
our work for the output classification, we showed the graphs of samples, the number of samples (through the
confusion matrix) and the accuracy. We were of course putting into consideration the distance and the k value
to maximize the results and accuracy of our model.

GENERAL CONCLUSION
Renewable energy is one of the most interesting and exciting fields of modern science and engineering. As the
world population increases, the demand for energy becomes more and more challenging. Renewable energy
seems to be the partial answer to that challenge hence why it’s imperative to consider the best method of
detecting problems in solar panels considering they are the most widely used source of renewable energy.

In this Article, we briefly talked about the different types of Photovoltaic Faults and proceeded to elaborate
more on the problems usually faced with engineers and technicians during maintenance of these systems.
Which is why we further elaborated on how we can categorize and detect PV faults using data science and one
of Artificial Intelligent (AI) algorithms KNN.

In the near future we hope to use more data science algorithms and compare them with each other to see which
one gives the highest efficiency in detecting faults not just in PV systems but in all energy systems.

REFERENCES
1. An analysis of PV solar electrification on rural live hood transformation A case of Kisiju-Pwani in
Mkuranga District, Tanzania page 18.
2. Ministère de l’Énergie et des Mines Algérie, Guide des Énergies Renouvelables, Édition 2007.
3. M.Boukli-Hacene Omar. Conception et réalisation d’un générateur photovoltaïque muni d’un
convertisseur MPPT pour une meilleure gestion énergétique. Mémoire de magister. Université ABOU
BAKR BELKAID de Tlemcen, 2011.
4. Long Bun, Détection et localisation de défauts dans un système photovoltaïque,Thèse de doctorat,
Université de Grenoble, Novembre 2011.
5. S. Spataru, D. Sera, T. Kerekes, R. Teodorescu,Diagnostic method for Photovoltaic systems based on
light I–V measurements, Solar Energy, Elsevier, Vol. 119,2015, p. 29‐43.
6. S.Saravanan, R. S. Kumar, A. Prakash, T. Chinnadurai, R. Tiwari, N. Prabaharan, et al., ''Photovoltaic
array reconfiguration to extract maximum power under partially shaded conditions'', in Distributed
Energy Resources in Microgrids. 2019, Elsevier. p. 225-241.
7. H.Bouzeria. Modélisation et commande d’une chaine de conversion photovoltaïque. Thèse de Doctorat,
Université de Batna 2 -Batna-, 2016.
8. Reference solar spectral irradiance: ASTM G‐173, ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials), IEEE Press, New York, 2000 .
Page 1228
www.rsisinternational.org
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XI Issue VIII August 2024

9. Arani, M.S.; Hejazi, M.A. The comprehensive study of electrical faults in PV arrays. J. Electr. Comput.
Eng. 2016.
10. M. K. Alam, F. H. Khan, J. Johnson,J. Flicker, PV arc-fault detection using spread spectrum time
domain reflectometry (SSTDR). in 2014 IEEE energy conversion congress and exposition (ECCE).
2014. IEEE.
11. D. Sera. Real-time modelling, diagnostics and optimised MPPT for residential PV systems. Doctoral
Thesis, Institute of energy technology-Alborg university, Denmark, 2009.
12. Firth, S.K.; Lomas, K.J.; Rees, S.J. A simple model of PV system performance and its use in fault
detection. Sol. Energy 2010, 84, 624–635.
13. V. Tamrakar, S. Gupta,Y. Sawle. Single-diode and two-diode PV cell modeling using Matlab for
studying characteristics of solar cell under varying conditions. Electrical & Computer Engineering: An
International Journal. Vol 4, p. 67-79, 2015;
14. W. Rezgui. Système intégré pour la supervision et le diagnostic des défauts dans les systèmes de
production d’énergies: les installations photovoltaïque. Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Batna 2 -
Batna-, 2015.
15. S. R. Madeti,S. N. Singh. A comprehensive study on different types of faults and detection techniques
for solar photovoltaic system. Solar Energy. Vol 158, p. 172-185, 2017;
16. R. Platon, J. Martel, N. Woodruff,T. Chau. Online fault detection in PV systems. IEEE Transactions on
Sustainable Energy. Vol 6, p. 1200-1207, 2015;
17. Cherifa K, Khelil M., Amrouche B,A. S. Benyoucef , Kamel K, Aissa C, New Intelligent Fault
Diagnosis (IFD) approach for grid-connected photovoltaic systems, p 30
18. T. Pei,X. Hao. A Fault Detection Method for Photovoltaic Systems Based on Voltage and Current
Observation and Evaluation. Energies. Vol 12, p. 1712, 2019;
19. Fault detection and diagnosis of photovoltaic system using fuzzy logic control January 2019E3S Web
of Conferences 107(5):02001DOI:10.1051/e3sconf/201910702001LicenseCC BY Authors:Zaki
K,Cairo University,Hong Lu Zhu,North China Electric Power University
20. Mellit A, Benghanem M, Hadj Arab A, Guessoum A, Modeling ofsizing the photovoltaic system
parameters using artificial neural network. In: Proceedings of IEEE conference on control application,p
3, 2003.
21. Brett L. Machine Learning with R second edition p64-78
22. Harsh B.,Surbhi B Application of Genetic Algorithms in Machine learning ,Uttar Pradesh,India.
23. Vikramaditya J,Tutorial on Support Vector Machine (SVM) , School of EECS, Washington State
University, Pullman 99164.
24. Jerry Z, Machine Learning: Decision Trees CS540 University of Wisconsin-Madison
25. T. Pei,X. Hao. A Fault Detection Method for Photovoltaic Systems Based on Voltage and Current
Observation and Evaluation. Energies. Vol 12, p. 1712, 2019;
26. Christopher M B 1997 Bayesian Neural Networks Journal of Brazilian Computer Society 10 1590.
27. G. M. Tina, F. Cosentino,C. Ventura, Monitoring and diagnostics of photovoltaic power plants. In
Renewable Energy in the Service of Mankind Vol II. 2016, Springer. p 503-516.
28. Mahmoud D, Fault Detection and Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Installations by A thesis
submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy p23-30.

Page 1229
View publication stats
www.rsisinternational.org