CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

For some students, “the experimentalists”, their laboratory sessions are the highlight of
their undergraduate degrees. It is in the laboratory that the physics they have learnt in lectures
begins to make sense to them and the connections between the equations and reality are
illuminated. Some of these students will continue working in laboratories to complete
doctorates in experimental physics or turn to experimental work in industry. For other students,
“the theoreticians”, the laboratory sessions are something that must be endured, often on a
weekly basis. However, separating students into the discrete boxes of experimentalists and
theoreticians does not really convey the holistic experience today’s undergraduates receive:
they must be talented at experiments as well as theory in order to excel at university.
This new book aims to guide both the “experimentalist” and “theoretician” through their
compulsory laboratory course forming part of an undergraduate physics degree. Some students
will have left school believing that physics experiments “never work”. Designing and
performing good physics experiments is a craft, it is a skill developed gradually over time. I
hope this book might go some way to persuading all students of the value and beauty within a
carefully planned and executed experiment and help them develop the skills to carry out
experiments themselves.
Those students who are completing undergraduate research projects and beginning a
doctorate will also find helpful and relevant sections. Graduate students supervising laboratory
sessions will find this a useful resource: especially the dedicated section on “Demonstrating
Undergraduate Physics Laboratory”.
Chapter 2 includes, the characteristics and safety considerations of a range of equipment
and materials. Chapter 3 moves on to detail how many common measurement instruments are
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operated. In Chapter 4, the focus turns to how to analyze measurements and Chapter 5 deals
with the presentation of results. Finally, Chapter 6 details a number of common experiments
and example laboratory reports.
The idea of learning about experimental physics through reading a book, might at first seem
to be tinged with a hint of irony. However, there are many concepts and techniques which a
physics student needs to learn and understand. Often these are not specifically written down or
taught in lectures: it is up to the interested student to investigate and learn for themselves.
While the goal of this book is not to detract from this inquisitive and curiosity driven learning,
it aims to provide an overview of the many topics and skills required in the first year
undergraduate physics laboratory and beyond. Inevitably, some readers will find detail lacking
in one area or another or pages which are currently superfluous to their needs. This book

French, Matthew. Physics Lab Experiments, Mercury Learning & Information, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unicamp-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4895093.
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 should not be read cover to cover, rather it should be dipped into to gain a basic understanding
of a certain topic when necessary. Where needed the reader, then armed with a good grounding
in the topic, can use other books or the Internet for further research.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LABORATORY

In the first year, students will usually work in pairs (or very small groups) undertaking a
different experiment each week. It is important students are able to work with other scientists:
for some experiments it is essential to have two people to perform the experiment. By
discussing experimental methods and the problems experienced with their partner students can
challenge their understanding and learn from each other. However, it is essential to work
together as a team and that both are engaged in each part of the experiment. Each student should
record their own results and perform their own analysis. Of course, the calculations and results
after each stage in the analysis should be cross checked. Identifying each other’s mistakes soon
after they are made will work to the advantage of both students.

Figure 1.1: The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Oxford. Left: condensed matter laboratory. Right:
optics laboratory.
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 Figure 1.2: The undergraduate laboratories at the University of Bristol.

Laboratory sessions will probably consist of a day, or most of a day, to perform the experiment
and collect results. Students may have to hand in their analysis and write up of the experiment
the same day, or be given a number of days to complete this. Usually a number of the
experiments are written up as formal laboratory reports, this is discussed in more detail in
Section 5.2.
When entering the laboratory, the experiments will usually be partially set up on tables in a
large room: see for example Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. There will probably be other students
nearby performing the same experiment using an identical set of apparatus. This provides more
opportunities to discuss results and troubleshoot the equipment and the method when results
don’t seem to make sense. Each group of 8 or 10 students (4 or 5 pairs) will usually be
supervised by a post graduate laboratory demonstrator. When advice or help is needed, having
carefully thought about the question and tried to find the solution the student should consult the
demonstrator for help. Sometimes, the demonstrator will remain with the same group of
Copyright © 2016. Mercury Learning & Information. All rights reserved.

students for the whole year working with them each week on different experiments. In other
cases a demonstrator will remain with the experiment and work with a different group of
students each week.
Never touch or remove equipment from someone else’s experiment. Experiments can be
working and recording data even if the user is not present. It is very annoying and frustrating if
an experiment is carefully setup, recording data and someone disturbs or removes some of the
equipment.
In the second year, and perhaps third year laboratory courses experiments become more
complex and longer: perhaps 4, 6, or 10 days (usually at 1 day per week). Students still work
in pairs, but the scripts become less detailed and it is expected that students use the knowledge
and skills acquired in the first year laboratory to develop a method and derive much of the

French, Matthew. Physics Lab Experiments, Mercury Learning & Information, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unicamp-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4895093.
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 analysis themselves.

1.2 DEMONSTRATING UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICS

LABORATORY

This section is written as a brief introduction for anyone demonstrating undergraduate

physics laboratory: usually this would be concurrent with studying for a PhD.
Demonstrating undergraduate physics laboratory can be an enjoyable experience which
also provides a little extra money. It is also good experience for the future when applying for
post-doc jobs or academic posts. It is usually expected that all academics working at a
university contribute to teaching in some way. When spending much of the time working on the
computer reading papers or analyzing data, a day in the undergraduate laboratory can give a
very welcome break. At other times, when experiments are going well and significant progress
is being made the interruption caused by the laboratory day can be a little frustrating.
In some universities or year groups the demonstrator is attached to a group of around 8–10
students who work in pairs. Each week a different experiment is performed and it is the
demonstrators’ responsibility to ensure they know how to carry out the experiment according
the the script given to the students, use all the necessary equipment and complete the analysis.
Demonstrators should be on hand with their groups of students for the full duration of the
laboratory session. At least initially, this can seem like a great deal of work and a little
daunting for anyone not confident with the experiments. However, there is usually the
opportunity to practice the experiments when the laboratory is closed to undergraduate students
and more experienced laboratory demonstrators who have worked for a number of years are
usually happy to help.
Alternatively, in some universities or year groups the demonstrator is attached to a
particular experiment (or a small number of experiments). This allows the demonstrator to
become an expert in certain experiments, although this means they meet different students each
week.
The laboratory books of the students are usually handed to the demonstrator for checking
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every week. The demonstrator will be responsible for marking the work and submitting the
marks for collation. It is good practice for each demonstrator to keep a record of all marks they
award. It is wise to always keep on top of marking. It need not take significant amounts of time,
especially if it is done as soon as possible after the books are handed when it will be more
fresh in the mind. Calculations and error analysis need not be worked through for each student
individually and checked in detail, although sometimes it is easy to spot and highlight/correct
an error the student has made.
Usually some guidance is provided to help with the assignment of marks, but the following
could be used as a guide if nothing is provided. Bear in mind that a 2:2 would correspond to
5/10, a 2:1 to 6/10 and a 1st to 7/10.
A mark of 4/10 or less would be awarded for a write up which did not meet the criteria for

French, Matthew. Physics Lab Experiments, Mercury Learning & Information, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unicamp-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4895093.
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 a mark of 5/10. This will generally be awarded rarely.
A mark of 5/10 would correspond to a reasonable attempt to collect data in the laboratory,
perhaps incomplete due to a lack of effort, skill/patience or hindered by temperamental
equipment. There should be an attempt to describe the method in some detail and to complete
the analysis as far as a final answer. The final answer may be significantly incorrect due to
errors in the recoding of data or the analysis. There may be no consideration of uncertainty.
A mark of 6/10 would be awarded where there was a complete or almost complete set of
data, perhaps only limited by temperamental equipment. The majority of the steps in the method
are described in the correct order. The analysis has been completed and a final answer has
been calculated. The final answer should be order of magnitude correct, or there are one or
two simple errors which can be easily identified such as a missing constant, an incorrect
conversion or a power of ten error. There may some consideration of uncertainty in the final
result but a reasonable, quantitative estimate is not given.
A mark of 7/10 would correspond to a collection of a complete set of data of an
appropriate accuracy and precision. All the key points in the method would be described in the
correct order and in significant detail. The analysis should be complete through to the final
answer. The final answer should be order of magnitude correct or any larger discrepancy
identified and an explanation attempted. There is some consideration of uncertainty leading to
a quantitative estimate of the uncertainty in the final answer, although its origin (both in the
experiment and in numerical terms) may be somewhat unclear.
A mark of 8/10 or higher will probably only be awarded rarely. This would correspond to
meeting and exceeding all the criteria for a mark of 7/10. There should be clearly recorded
data which has been repeated a number of times (as time allowed) along with a detailed
consideration of the uncertainty in each measurement. The method should provide significant
detail, which would allow a similar student to perform the same experiment without reference
to other texts. The final answer should be quoted with an uncertainty which is clearly
calculated and well founded in the actual measurements taken.
Alternative guidance is sometimes provided for marking formal reports. Marks might be
awarded in categories such as “Clarity of arguments”, “Scientific Content”, “Presentation”,
“Scientific Literacy and Style”.
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The “Clarity of arguments” section might score 7/10 if there is a clear introduction,
explanation of the method, the analysis and the results. This should be at a level understandable
by a student in the same academic year as the author. If some of these areas are lacking a clear
explanation then 6/10 may be more appropriate. If most of these areas are not clearly explained
then 5/10 or less may be appropriate.
The “Scientific Content” section might score 7/10 if there is sufficient detail on all aspects
of any derivations needed, the method, analysis and error analysis which would allow a
similar student to repeat the work without reference to other texts. Extremely thorough and
competent work would score ≥ 8/10, and work where some sections are not fully addressed
would score 6/10. If many sections are not fully addressed or if any are missing a mark of ≤
5/10 would be appropriate.

French, Matthew. Physics Lab Experiments, Mercury Learning & Information, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unicamp-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4895093.
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 In the “Presentation” section, marks are awarded for the layout and organization of the
work. Tables and diagrams should be neat, appropriate and fully labeled with column
headings, units and figure captions (e.g., Figure 1.2: A diagram of ...). Graphs should be of an
appropriate type (usually scatter graphs, without the points joined up) have axis labels, units, a
line of best fit (in most cases), a figure caption and be large enough to be seen clearly. The
written work should be logically ordered and there should be a good use of section numbers
and sub-headings. Where there are only a few minor mistakes a mark of 7/10 should be
awarded. A mark of 6/10 would be appropriate if there are a number of mistakes or one point
is consistently absent. If there are many of the above points absent then a mark of ≤ 5/10 could
be awarded.
Finally marks in the “Scientific Literacy and Style” are awarded for the style in which the
report is written. Usually reports should be in a formal style with no use of the words “we”,
“I” or “you”. Description of the physics involved and the analysis should make correct use of
appropriate technical terms. Reference should be made to other work which is cited in an
appropriate, formal style. If these criteria are mostly met then a mark of 7/10 should be
awarded. If there are occasional mistakes, then 6/10 could be given. With many mistakes or a
whole report written in the first person (using “we”, “I” or “you”) then a mark of 5/10 could be
awarded.
Copyright © 2016. Mercury Learning & Information. All rights reserved.

French, Matthew. Physics Lab Experiments, Mercury Learning & Information, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unicamp-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4895093.
Created from unicamp-ebooks on 2023-03-09 13:33:59.