FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: FURTHER MATHEMATICS CLASS: SSS3

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC

1. Inequalities: (i)Quadratic inequalities and inequalities in two dimensions.

2. Matrices and Determinants (2x2,3x3):Basic definitions (i)Matrices as linear
transformations (ii)Determinants (iii)Solutions

2 and 3simultaneous equations.

3. Partial Fractions: (i) Basic definitions (ii) Proper rational functionswith denominators
as linear factors (distinct and repeated)
Andothers.
4. Integration : (i)Understand integration as the reverse process ofdifferentiation (ii)
Integration of algebraic polynomials
including 1/x,logarithmic function (iii)Definition integrals and application
tokinematics Apply to V-t and S-t graphs.(iv)Areas under the curveTrapezoidal
rule.Volume of solids of revolution.
5. Conic Sections: (i)Equations of parabola, Ellipse, Hyperbola inrectangular Cartesian
coordinates (ii)Parametric equations.
6. Correlation: (i)Concept of correlation as measure of relationships (ii)Scatter
diagrams (iii)Rank correlation (iv)Tied ranks
7. Probability Distribution and Approximations: (I) Binomial (ii)Poisson (iii)Normal
distributions (iv)Binomial approximations
(iv)Approximations by binomial distribution.
8. Variance: (i)Mean (ii)Variance (iii)Coefficient of variance of Binomial, Poisson and
Normal distributions.
9. Revision.
10. Examination
FIRST TERM

SUBJECT: FURTHER MATHEMATICS

CLASS: SSS 3

TOPIC: INEQUALITIES

CONTENT : (1) SOLVE QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

(2) SOLVE INEQUALITIES IN TWO DIMENSION

SUB-TOPIC:- QUADRATIC INEQULITIES

Inequalities of the form a x 2 +bx +c ≤ 0 or a x 2 +bx +c ≥ 0 are called quadratic inequalities.

We can solve this form of inequality in two ways.

Method 1

___First factorise the quadratic expression on the left hand side then,

___Consider the following

(i) If a ∙ b> 0 then either a> 0and b> 0

a< 0 a nd b<0

(ii) If a ∙ b< 0 then either a> 0 a nd b>0 or

a< 0 a nd b>0

Method II –Graphical method

___Sketch the graph of a x 2 +bx +c=f (x)

___Consider the points where the graph cuts the x-axis (these are the points or
the zeros of (f(x))
___ Select the region below the x-axis (positive part) or the region below the x-
axis (negative part)
Example 1: Solve the following inequalities for x
(a) (x+4)(x-3)< 0
(b) 2( x 2−6 ) ≥ 5 x
(c) 6−x−x 2> 0
SOLUTION
(a) (x+4)(x-3)<0
x +4 <0 and x -3 >0
∴ x <-4 and x > 3 (case 1)
 ¿
x+ 4 >0 and x -3 <0
∴ x >-4 and x < 3 (case 11)
but x cannot be less than -4 and greater than 3 at the same time,
therefore, the solution is
x >−4∧x <3
Which can be combined as,
-4<x<3 hence the solution set is
(x: -4 < x <3)
(b) 6−x−x 2> 0
By factorising, this implies
(3+x)(2-x)>0
Either 3+x >0 and 2-x >0
∴ x >-3 and x< 2
¿
3+x<0 and 2-x < 0
∴ x <-3 and x > 2
A gain, x cannot be less than -3 and greater than 2 at the same time.
Wherefore,
x> -3 and x<2
Hence the solution set s (x: -3 <2 )
(c) 2 ( x 2−6 ) ≥ 5 x
2 x -5x-12≥ 0 (by rearranging)
2

( 2 x−3 ) ( x−4)≥0 (by factorising)

Either 2x-3≥ 0 and x+4 ≥ 0

3
∴ x ≥ ∧x ≥−4−−−−−−case i
2
¿
2 x−3 ≤0∧x +4 ≤0
3
∴ x≤ and x ≤−4 ------------case ii
2
Case i can be combined as
3 3
( x: x≤ ¿ n ( x : x ≤−4 )=(x : x ≥ )
2 2
Case i can be combined as
3
( x : x ≤ ¿ n ( x : x ≤−4 )=( x : x ≤−4 )
2
Therefore the solution set combines case i and case ii
3
∴ ( x : x ≤−4 ) u(x : ≥ )
2
 Example 2:- Use the graphical method to find solution set for the
quadratic inequalities in Example 1.
(a) (x+4)(x-3)<0
Consider the equation (x+4)(x-3) =0
The roots are x = -4 or x = 3
The graph is sketched as follows

+ve
-4 3 -ve x

The position where (x+4)(x-3)<0 is below the x-axis

Thus (x+4)(x-3)<0 if -4<x<3

∴The solution set is (x: -4<x<3)

(b) 6−x−x 2> 0

Consider the equation 6−x−x 2=0

The roots are x=−3∨x=2

The graph is sketched as follows :-

+ve
-3 2 -ve x

The position of the graph where 6−x−x 2> 0 is above the x axis, thus

2
6−x−x > 0 if −3< x <2

∴The solution set is (x:-3<x<2)

(c) 2 ( x 2−6 ) ≥ 5 x

Rearrange and consider the equation

2
2 x −5 x −12≥ 0
2
2 x −5 x −12=0

The roots of the equation are

1
X=-4 or 12

The graph is sketched as follows

+ve
4 0 -ve x
The portion of the graph where 2 x 2−5 x −12≥ 0is above the x axis, thus,

1
2 x −5 x −12≥ 0 if x ≤−4 or x ≥ 12
2

∴The solution set is (x:x≤−4 ) U (X:X≥ 112)

Some inequalities that are neither linear nor quadratic often lead to quadratic inequalities
and can be solved as in the previous examples.

Example 3:- solve the inequalities

1 2 x +1
(a) ≤3 (b) >0
2 x−5 x−3

Solution:-

1
(a) ≤3
2 x−5
Multiply through by (2x-5 ¿2 which is always positive to ensure that the inequality
remains true
2
(2 x−5) 2
≤ 3(2 x−5)
2 x−5
2
2 x−5 ≤12 x −60 x+ 75
∴0 ≤ 12 x 2−62 x +80
2
∴ 12 x −62 x +80 ≥ 0
2
∴ 6 x −31 x + 40 ≥0
∴ ( 2 x −5 ) (3 x−8)≥ 0
Thus, either 2 x−5 ≥0∧3 x−8 ≥ 0
5 8
x ≥ ∧x ≥ (case i)
2 3

OR 2 X−5 ≤ 0∧3 x −8 ≤0

5 8
∴ x≤ ∧x≤ (case ii )
2 3

Combing case(i) and case (ii)

5 8
The solution set is (x:x≤ ) U ( x : x ≥ )
2 3

2 x +1
(b) (2 x+ 1)(x−3)= y >0
x−3
 2
multiply through by ( x−3 ) which is positive to keep the inequality time
¿¿
( 2 x+1 )( x−3 )> 0
Consider the equation (2x+1)(2x-3) =0
−1
The roots are x= and x = 3
2
The graph of (2x+1)(x-3)=y is sketched below

+ve
0 3 -ve

The position of the graph above the x-axis is the solution, thus the solution set is

−1
(x: x < ) U (x:x>3)
2

EVALUATION

(1) Solve the following inequalities

(a)( x +3 ) (x +1)≤ 0
(b)2 x 2+3 x−5 ≥ 0
(c) x 2< 25

(2) Solve the inequalities below

5x x−3
(a ) ≤ 1 ( b) >0
x−2 x +3

Sub-Topic :- INEQUALITIES IN TWO DIMENSION

The solutions of inequalities in one variable can be shown on a number line because it is one
dimensional but for inequalities in two variables, we need the two dimensional x,y plane
and the solutions will lie in a region of the plane.

Example 1:- Show the region 2 y−x <5

Solution:-

The boundary line is 2 y−x ≠5 , points on this line do not satisfy 2 y−x <5 ,so we draw the
line dotted……………………..

We can plot the line 2 y−x=5 if we get the intercepts on the x and y axis that is,the points
where x=o and the point where y=0

5
When x=0 , 2 y=5 ⟹ y=
2

When y=0 ,−x=5 ⟹ x=−5

To determine whether the region above or below the dotted line is the required region, we
test if the origin (0,0) satisfy the inequality when x=y=0, we have
0 x
0-0¿ 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Thus we require the region below the line containing the origin (0,0)

We shade the required region

3
2y-x>5
2
2y-x<5
1

-1 0
-5 -4 -3 -2
Example 2:- Show graphically the region represented by the inequality

2 y +3 x+3 ≥ 0

Solution:-

The boundary line is 2 y +3 x+3=0 and is satisfied by the inequality 2 y +3 x+≥ 0 , so we use
a full line to represent it on the plane.

The x and y intercepts, that is the points where the graph crosses the x and y axis are found
as follow,

When y=0, 0+3 x +3=0

⟹ x=−1

When x = 0 2y+3 = 0

−3 1
⟹ y= =−12
2

We can use these intercepts to sketch the line

2 y +3 x+3=0
y

2y + 3x+3

-2 -1 0 x

-1

-2
We check if the origin (0,0) is satisfied by the inequality 2 y +3 x+3 ≥ 0

⟹ 0+0+3 ≥ 0

Thus we require the region above the line containing the region(0,0)

Example 3:- Show graphically the region represented by the inequality

2
y ≥ x −5 x−24

Solution:-

Consider the curve y=x 2−5 x−24 the y-intercept is the point y=0−0−24 , that is (0,-24)
the x-intercepts are the points where x 2−5 x−24=0

That is, the roots of the equation,

x=−3∨x=8

Therefore the x and y intercepts are

(−3 , 0 ) , ( 8 , 0 ) ,∧(0 ,−24 )

We can sketch the curve with these points

-3 0 8
x

Substitute the origin (0,0)-24

into the inequality to determine whether to shade or outside the
curve

When x= y =0 , we have

0 ≥ 0−0−24

That is, 0≥−24 ,which a true statement

Hence, all points within the curve satisfy y ≥ x 2−5 x−24 while points outside the curve
satisfy y ≤ x 2−5 x−24

Example 4:- show the region represented by the inequality y>3-11x-4 x 2

Solution:-

Consider the curve y=3-11x-4 x 2

1
The x and y intercepts are (0,3), ( , 0)(-3,0)
4

The sketch is shown below

-3 0

Substitute the origin (0,0) into the inequality ⟹ 0>3 which is not true therefore the origin
does not satisfy the inequality, the line y=3−11 x−4 x 2 is also not part of region hence the
dotted curve.

Evaluation

(1) Show graphically the regions

(a) X+2y+4<0
(b) X-4y+7≥ 0
(2) Show graphically the regions
(a) y≤ 8−2 x−x 2
(b) y≥ 6 x 2−x−2
GENERAL EVALUATION

(1) solve the inequalities

(a) x 2−2 x−35<0
x−1
(b) <1
x+ 2

(2) Find the range of x for which 5x(x+2)>0

(3) show graphically the regions represented by the inequalities

(a) 2x+3y+>0

(b) 2x-3y+1≤ 0

(4) show graphically the regions represented by the inequalities

(a) y<1- x 2

(b)y≥ 6 x 2+5 x +1

ASSIGNMENT

(1) find the range of value of x for which

( 3 x−1 ) ( 2−x ) <2 x2−13 x +13
(2) find the range of values of x for which
x
>0
( 2−x ) (1−x )
(3) find the range of values for which
1
>1
x−3
(4) show graphically the regions represented by the inequalities
(a) y ≤ x 2−9
(b) x +2 y+ 4> 0
WEEK 3 1ST TERM

SUBJECT: Further Mathematics

CLASS: SS 3

TOPIC: Matrices and Determinants (2x2, 3x3)

CONTENT:

(1) Matrices as linear transformations

(2) Determinants
(3) Solutions of 2 and 3 simultaneous equations

Subtopic 1: MATRICES

- Basic definitions
(1) A matrix is a rectangular away of numbers arranged
in rows and column. A matrix with m rows and n columns
is called an ‘m by n matrix’ or a matrix of order m x n.

Examples:

[
( i ) 2 ¿ 4 ¿5¿
¿ ¿ ]
[
( ii ) −2 3 8−5 ¿
¿ ¿7 ¿ ]

[ ]
1 2
( iii ) 0 4
5 7

(i) Is a matrix of order 2 x 2

(ii) Is a matrix of order 2 x 3
(iii) Is a matrix of order 3 x 2
 (2) A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix e.g.
(2 6 5) is a 1 x 3 matrix

Solution:

[
( a ) A+ B= 5 −2 + 7 3
8 1 4 −1 ][ ]
¿¿

¿
[1212 −11 ]
( b ) A+ B+C=( A + B)+C

¿
[1212 −11 ]+[10 −43 ]

¿
[ 12+1 1+3
12+0 −1+(4) ]
¿
[ 13 4
12 −5 ]
¿

A+ B+C=
[58 −21 ]+[ 74 −23 ]+[ 10 −43 ]
¿
[8+5+7+3
4+ 0
−2+ 3+3
1−2−4 ]
¿
[1312 −54 ]
[
( c ) B−C= 7 3 − 1 3
4 −2 0 −4 ][ ]
 ¿
[ 7−1 3−3
4−0 −2−(−4) ]
¿
[ 64 02]
- MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
(i) Scalar Multiplication

21
[
22
P P
]
Let P= P11 P12 ∧k be a scalar , t h e

Matrix kP is the calar multiplication of the matrix P by the scalar

k and is denoted by kP, thus

X=
[ x 11 x 12
x 21 x 22 ]
Y=
[ k P11 k P 12
kP21 kP22 ]
4 −3
For example, Let P= 1 7 , find 3 P [ ]
Solution:

3 P=3
[ 41 −37 ]=[ 3 x1 4 3 x −3
3x7 ]
¿
[123 −921 ]
(ii) Matrix Matriculation

Two matrices X and Y are said to be conformable for

multiplication if the numbers of columns in one equal the
number of rows in the other
Let X =
[ x 11 x 12
x 21 x 22 ] [ y
, Y = 11
y 21
y 12
y 22 ]
Then the product of x and y written as XY or X.Y. is

Z=
[ Z 11 Z 12
X 21 Z 22 ]
w h ere

Z11 = x11y11 + x12y21

Z12 = x11y12 + x12y22

Z21 = x21y11 + x22y21

Z22 = x21y12 + x21y22

Example 2:

[ ]
3 −2
5 −2 4
Given that A= 4 1 and B = 1 3 6
−5 2
[ ]
Find: -

(a) 3A
(b) AB
(c) BA

Solution

[ ][ ]
3 −2 9 −6
( a ) 3 A=3 4 1 = 12 3
−5 2 −15 6

[ ][
3 −2
( b ) AB= 4
−5 2
1 .
5 −2 4
1 3 6 ]
[ ]
( 3 x 5 ) +(−2 x 1) (3 x−2)+(−2 x 3) ( 2 x 4 ) +(−2 x 6)
( 4 x 5 ) +( 1 x 1 ) ( 4 x−2 ) + ( 1 x 3 ) ( 4 x 4 )+(1 x 6)
(−5 x 5 ) + ( 2 x 1 ) (−5 x 2 ) + ( 2 x 3 ) (−5 x 4 ) +(2 x 6)

[ ]
13 −12 0
¿ 21 −5 22
−23 16 −8

][ ]
3 −2
( c ) BA= [
5 −2 4
1 3 6
. 4
−5 2
1

¿
[15−8−20
3+12−30
−10−2+8
−2+3+12 ]
¿
[−13
−15 13 ]
−4

- PROPERTIES OF MATRICES
(1) Community

If A and B are matrices, then A + B = B + A

but AB ≠ BA

thus addition of matrices is commutative but multiplication of

matrices is not generally commutative.

(2) Associativity

If A, B and C are matrices then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) and

(AB) C = A (BC)

Thus the operation of addition and multiplication in matrices

are Associative.

(3) Distributivity

If A, B, and C are matrices then

A (B + C) = AB + BC also

(B + C) A = BA + CA

Thus in matrices, multiplication distributes over addition.

- SPECIAL MATRICES
(1) Transpose of a matrix

Let A = AT is called the transpose of the matrix A and is

obtained by interchanging the columns and rows of A.

(2) Symmetric Matrix

If A = AT that is A is equal to its transpose then the matrix A is

said to be symmetric.

[ ]
4 1 −3
e.g. A= 1 1 2
−3 2 1

(3) Skew symmetric matrix

For a matrix A, if AT = -A then A is said to be skew symmetric

[ ]
0 2 −3
e.g. A= −2 0 5
3 −5 0

(4) Scalar matrix: -

A scalar matrix is a square matrix in which the elements in the

principal diagonal are equal and non-zero.

[ ]
3 0 0
e.g. 0 3 0
0 0 3

(5) triangular matrix

This is a scalar matrix in which the entries above or below the
principal diagonal are zero.

Examples

[ ][ ]
5 0 0
1 3
, 2 3 0
0 2
1 1 2

(6) Identity Matrix

This is a scalar matrix in which all the elements in the principal

diagonal are unity, it is also called a unity, it is also called a unit
matrix.

Examples

[ ][
1 0 0
0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
1 0
0 1 ]
(7) Null Matrix

This is a matrix with all its elements being zero it is also called
zero matrix

[ ][ ]
0 0 0
0 0
, 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0

EVALUATION

[ ] [ ]
1 3 2 4 −3
2
(1) Given that 8 −4 4 , B= 3 8 4
7 3 5 −1 3 6

find

(a) A+B
 (b) B–A
(c) 2A – B

(2) [
3 2
]
Given that X = 4 −6 ,

Y= 1 8 −4[4 3 6
]
Find

(a) 4B
(b) AB

(c) [ 3 8]
Let a X = −4 5 ,

B = [ 3 −5 ]
−4 7

Show that (A + b)T

SUBTOPIC 2: DETERMINANTS

- Second order determinants of matrix A is denoted det A.

[
21
a
22
a
]
If A = a11 a12 then, det a is denoted by det A

Then, det A is defined as det A = a a

21 22
| a11 a12
|
¿ a 11 a11−a21 a22

The determinant above is said to be of second order since it is

obtained from a matrix of order 2 x 2.

Example 1: - Evaluate each of the following determinants

(a) |−64 −32 |

 (b) |−2x −12 |
Solution

|4
(a) −6
−3
2 |
= (4 x 2) – (-6 x -3)

= 8 – 18

= -10

(c) |−2x −12 |

¿ ( 2 x )−2

¿ 2 ( x−1 )

£ xample 2 :−find t h e value of x for w h ic h

|x−3x x +1
x +2 |
= (x-3) (x +2) – [x (x+1)] = 0

= -2x – 6

=0

⇒ -2x = 6

x=¿−3

−T hird Order Determinants

Minors

Let A be a third order determinant. That is,

 | |
a 11 a21 a 31
A= a21 a22 a 32
a31 a32 a 33

The minor of a particular element of the determinant A is

obtained by deleting the row and column of the particular
element. For example

Let Aij be the minor of aij

Thus,

| |
a11 a21 a31
A11 = a 21 a22 a32
a 31 a32 a33

|
¿
a22 a23
a32 a33 |
| |
a11 a 21 a31
A21= a21 a 22 a32
a31 a 32 a33

|
¿
a12 a13
a32 a33 |
| |
a11 a 21 a31
A13= a21 a 22 a32
a31 a 32 a33

|a
= a21 a22
31 32
a
|
And so on.

| |
4 0 3
Example 1: - given the matrix 2 −1 −5
1 −2 1

Determine the following minors

 (a) A23
(b) A12

Solution

| |
4 0 3
(a) A23 = 2 −1 −5
1 −2 1

|4 0 |
= 1 −2

= (4 x -2) – (1 x 0)

= -8 – 1

= = -9

Similarly,

|2 0|
A12 = 1 1

= (2 x 1) – (-5 x 1)

=2+5

=7

Cofactors

For each minor of an element of a determinant, a sign

(positive or negative) is attached, this gives the cofactor.
Usually if Cij denotes the cofactor of Aij then,

Cij = Aij if (i + j) is even

and Cij = (i + j) is odd

thus the signs of the cofactor are as follows

Consider

Then,
¿

C11 = +A11 = 7-25 = -18

C12 = -A12

1 −5
= −7 1 | |
= 1-(-35)

= 36

These leads us to calculating third order determinants if ∆

denotes the determinant of the matrix

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 then
a31 a32 a33

∆ = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13

Example 3: - Evaluate each of the following determinants

| |
5 2 −4
(a) −1 0 2
−4 3 7
 | |
5 2 −4
(b) −1 0 2
−4 3 7

(a) ∆=5 3 7 |0 2|
|−1 2|
= −4 7

= -4 |−4 3|
−1 0

= 5 (0-6) -2 (-7+8) – 4 (-3-0)

= -20

(b) ∆= -1 −3 5 | 1 0|
| 3 0|
= -8 −2 5

= +1|−2 −3|
3 1

= -1(5-0) -8(15-0) +1(-9+2)

= -5-120-7
= -132
- Some properties of determinants
(1) If the row and column of a determinant are
interchanged, the value of the determinant is unchanged.

That is,

|
a
If ∆ = a11 a12
21 22
a
|
and

|
a11 a21
∆* = a a
12 22
|
Then ∆ = ∆*
 (2) If two adjacent columns or rows of a determinant are
interchanged, the sign of the determinant changes but its
numerical value is unchanged.

|
b11 b12
If ∆ = b b
21 22
|
and

|
b
∆* = b 12 b11
22 21
b
|
(3) If two rows of columns of a determinant are identical
then the value of the determinant is zero.

For example if

| |
2 1 2
∆= 4 6 4
3 0 3

That is, row 1 = row 3

Then ∆ = 0

Check

|6 4| |4 4| |4 6|
∆ = 2 0 3 −1 3 3 + 3 0

= 2 x 18 – (12 – 12) + 2 x -18

= 36 – 0 – 36 = 0
(4) If every element in a rwo or column of a determinant is
multiplied by the same constant then the value of the
determinant is multiplied by that constant for example, if ∆

| |
a11 a12 a13
= a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

| |
2 a11 2 a12 2 a13
Then a21 a 22 a 23 = 2D
a31 a 32 a 33

(5) If by putting x =a , the value of a determinant

becomes zero, then x – a is a factor of the determinant.
For example by putting x = 1 in the determinant below

| |
1 0 −1
f(x) = −1 x−3 −1 = 0
−1 −2 x −2

therefore, x-1 is a factor of f(x).

EVALUATION

(1) Evaluate the determinants below

(a) |−23 125 |

(b) |√
x −√ x
x 1 |
(2) | sinθ
Show that −cosθ sinθ = 1 |
cosθ

(3) Evaluate the determinant of the matrix

[ ]
1 2 1
2 6 3
0 4 7

(4) Find the values of x for which

 |3−x
−1
9
1+2 x |
=0

(5) Find the value of x if

| |
4 3 2
(6) −1 4 x = 17
2 −2 3

Sub-Topic 3:

Solutions of Simulataneous Equations

- Two equations in two unknowns

If we consider the system of two equations with two unknowns

a1x + b1y = C1 ... (i)

a2x + b2y = C2 ... (ii)

to eliminate the y variables, we

a1b2x + b1b2y = c1b2

- a2b1x + b1b2y = c2b1

(a1b2 – a2b1)x = c1b2 – c2b1
c 1 b2−c2 b1
∴x=
a1 b2−a2 b 1

Similarly,

c 2 a 1−c 1 a 2
y=
a 1 b 2−a2 b1

observe that the denominators are the same and is the value of

the determinant

| |
a1 b 1
a2 b 2
w hic h we denote as ∆
also t h e numerator for x is t h e determinant

| |
c1 b1
c2 b2

w hic h we denote as ∆ 1

¿ t h e numerator for y is t h e determinant

| |
a1 b 1
c2 b2
which we denote as ∆ 2

Therefore for a system of two linear equations in two

unknowns

a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2

∆1 ∆2
x= ∧y=
∆ ∆

w h ere ∆1=
| |
c 1 b1
c 2 b2

∆ 2=
| |
a1 c 1
a2 c2
and ∆=
a1 b 1
a2 b 2| |
t h is is called t h e Cramers Rule
Example 1: - use Cramer’s rule to solve the follwoing
simultaneous equations.
 (a) 4x + 3y = 13
x - 5y = -14
(b) 2x – 7y = 12
3x – y = -1

Solution

|4 3 |
(a) ∆ = 1 −5 = -20-3 = -23

| 13 3
|
∆1 = −14 −5 = -65+42 = -23

|4 13
|
∆2 = 1 −14 = -56-13 = -69

∆1 −23
∴ x=¿ = −23 = 1
∆
∆2 −69
y= = =3
∆ −23

(b) 2x – 7y = 12
3x – y = -1

Solution

∆=|23 −7
−1|
= -2 + 21 = 19

|2 12
|
∆1 = −1 −1 = -2 – 36 = -38

∆1 −19
x = ∆ = 19 = -1

−38
and y = 19 = -2
 - Three Linear equations in three unknown

Applying the same rule to the following system of three

equations in three unknowns.

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1

a2x + b2y + c2z = d2

a3x + b3y + c3z = d3

| |
a1 b 1 c 1
Let ∆ = a2 b 2 c 2
a3 b 3 c 3

| |
a1 d 1 c 1
∆2 = a2 d 2 c 2
a3 d 3 c 3

| |
d1 b1 c 1
∆1 = d2 b2 c 2
d3 b3 c 3

| |
a1 b 1 d 1
∆3 = a2 b 2 d 2
a3 b 3 d 3

It can also be shown that

∆1 ∆ ∆
x= ,y= 2 ,z= 3
∆ ∆ ∆

This is the Cramer’s rule for a system of three equations in

three unknowns.

Example 2: - use determinants to solve each of the following

systems of equations

(a) 2x - y – z = -10
 x - 3y + z = 13
4x – y + 2z = 3
(b) x – y + z = 12
2x – 3y – 2z = 7
X+y+z=6

Solution

| |
2 −1 −1
(a) Let ∆ = 1 −3 1
4 −1 2

|−3 1 | |1 1| |1 −3|
= 2 −1 −2 + 4 2 - 1 4 −1

= 2 (-6+1) )2-4) – (-1+12)

= -10 – 2 – 11
= -23

| |
−10 −1 −1
Let ∆1 = 13 −3 1
3 −1 2

= - 2 (-6+1) (2-4) – (-1+12)

= 50 + 23 + 4

= 77

| |
2 −10 −1
∆2 = 1 13 1
4 3 2

= 2(26 – 3) + 10 (2-4) – 1(3-52)

= 46 – 20 + 49

= 75

| |
2 −1 −10
∆3 = 1 −3 13
4 −1 3

= 2(-9 + 13) + (3 – 52) – 10 (-1 + 12)

= 8 – 49 – 110

= - 151

∆1 77 77
∴x= = −23 = - 23
∆

∆2 75 −75
y= = −23 = 23
∆

−151 151
z = −23 = 23

| |
1 −1 −1
(b) Let ∆ = 2 −3 −2
1 1 1

= (-3 + 2) + (2+2) + (2+3)

=-1+4+5

=8

| |
12 −1 1
Let ∆1 = 7 −3 −2
6 1 1

= 12 (-3 + 2) + (7+12) + (7+18)

= -12 + 19 + 25

= 32
 | |
1 12 1
∆2 = 2 7 −2
1 6 1

= (7+12) – 12 (2+2) + (12-7)

= 19 – 48 + 5

= -24

| |
1 −1 12
∆3 = 2 −3 7
1 1 6

= (-18-7) + (12-7) + 12(2+3)

= -25 + 5+ 60

= 40

∆1 32
∴x= = 8 =4
∆

∆2 −24
∴ y= = = -3
∆ 8

∆3 40
∴ z= = =5
∆ 8

- T h e Adjoint

The adjoint of a given square matrix is the transpose of th

matrix formedc by taking the co-factors of the matrix. It is
someties called the adjugate

Examples 3: - determine the adjoint of the matrix

[ ]
3 1 4
A= −1 8 2
4 1 7
Solution

Let the matrix of the co-factors be

[ ]
c 11 c 12 c 13
C = c 21 c 22 c 23
c 31 c 32 c 33

Where C11 = - 1 7 = 54|8 2|

C12= - 4 |−1 27| = +15
C13= - 4 |−1 81| = 33
|1 4|
C21= - 1 7 = -3

|3 4|
C22 = - 4 7 = 5

|3 1|
C23 = - 4 1 = 1

|1 4|
C31 = - 8 2 = -30

| 3 4|
C32 = - −1 2 = -10

| 3 1|
C33 = - −1 8 = 25

Hence,

[ ]
54 15 −33
C = −3 5 1 , let the transpose of C
−30 −10 25
 [ ]
54 3 −30
be CT = 15 5 −10
−33 1 25

then the adjoint of A is given by

[ ]
54 3 −30
T
Adj A = C = 15 5 −10
−33 1 25

Singular matrix

A square matrix whose determinant is equal to zero is called a

singular matrix.

- The inverse of a square maatrices of the same order. If AB

= BA = I (i.e. the identity matrix)

- the inverse of a square matrix

let A and B be non singular square matrices of the same order.

If AB = BA = I (i.e. the identity matrix) then B is called the
inverse of A denoted as A-1

that is A. A-1 = I

the inverse of a matrix A is defined as

Adj A
A-1 = | A|

for a 2 x 2 matrix A = c d the inverse [a b ]

[ ]
¿
A d −b
A -1
= where A¿ =¿= −c a
| A|

- matrix method of solving simultaneous equations

example 4: use matrix method to solve each of the following
systems of equations

(a) 4x + y = 1
5x – 2y = 11

(b) 2x + y + 3z = 16
X + 2y – z = -2
3x + y + 27 = 14

Solution

The equations

4x + y = 1

5x – 2y = 11

Can be written in the matrix form as

[ 45 −21 ] [ xy ] = [ 111 ]
Let A = 5 −2 [4 1 ]
B= y [x]
C = 11 [1]
We can rewrite the matrix equations as

AB = C ... ... ... *

If we pre-multiply both sides of * by A-1, then we have

A-1 A.B = A-1 C

IB = A-1C

B = A-1C
¿
A
Recall A-1 =
| A|

A* = −5[−2 −14 ]
| A| = -8-5 = -13

∴ A-1 = - [
1 −2 −1 1
n −5 4 11 ][ ]
[ ]
1 −13
= - 13 39

[1]
= −3

[x] [ 1 ]
Thus, y = −3

Hence x = 1, and y = -2

(b) The equations

2x + y – z = 16

X + 2y – z = -2

3x + y + 2z = 14

[ ][ ] [ ]
2 1 3 x 16
In matrix form is 1 2 −1 y = −2
3 1 2 z 14
 [ ]
2 1 3
Let P = 1 2 −1
3 1 2

[]
x
Q= y
z

[]
16
R= −2
14

We write the matrix as

PQ = R ... ... ... **

Pre-multiplying both sides of ** by P-1, gives

P-1.PQ = P-1R

IQ = P-1R

Recall:

Adj P
P-1 = |P|

Let x be the matrix of cofactors of P

[ ]
c 11 c 12 c 13
x = c 21 c 22 c 23
c 31 c 32 c 33

C11 = + 1 |2 −12 | = 5
C12 = - 3 |1 −12 | = -5
|1 2|
C13 = + 3 1 = -5
 |1 3|
C21 = - 1 2 = 1

|2 3|
C22 = + 3 2 = -5

|2 1|
C23 = + 1 2 = 3

|1 3 |
C31 = + 2 −1 = -7

|2 3 |
C32 = - 1 −1 = 5

|2 1|
C33= + 1 2 = 3

Therefore,

[ ]
5 5 −5
X = −5 −5 1 ,
−7 5 3

[ ]
5 1 −7
T
X = −5 −5 5
−5 1 3

= Adj P

|P| = 2
1 |2 −12 | - 1 |13 −12 | + 3|13 21|
= (2 x 5) – 5+(3x5)

= 10 – 5-15

= -10

Thus,
 [ ][ ]
5 1 −7
1 1
P-1 = |P|Adj P = - 10 −5 −5 5
−5 1 3

and

[ ][ ][ ]
5 1 −7 16
1
Q = - 10 −5 −5 5 −2
−5 1 3 14

[ ][ ]
−20
1
= - 10 0
−40

[][]
x 2
∴ y =0
z 4

Hence x = z, y = 0, z = 4.

EVALUATION

(1) Use determinants to solve each of the following

systms of equations.
(a) x + 3y = 5
x – y = -11

(b) x + 2y – z = -10
3x – y + z = 13
2x + y + 2z = 3
(2) find the matrix of the cofactors of the elements of the
determinant
 | |
3 8 1
7 2 −3
4 −1 5

(3) use matrix method to solve

2x + 3y = 12

X–y=1

GENERAL EVALUATION

(1) [2 1 ] [ 1 4]
If A = 1 −3 , B = 0 2 , C = 2 3 [ 3 4]
Find: -

(a) A+b
(b) 2A – C

[ ]
x+3 −1 1
(2) Given A = 2 x−5 1
6 −6 x+ 2

(i) Evaluate | A|
(ii) Find the values of x for which | A|is zero

[ ]
3 4 2
(3) Evaluate 1 −5 3
2 3 1

Hence solve the following equations

3x + 4y + 2z = 4

X – 5y + 3z = -1

2x + 3y + z = 3
ASSIGNMENT

Further Mathematics Project 3

Page 211 – 216 Revision Exercise

Chapter 5 (pages 211 and 213_ no 2, 18

Chapter 6 (pages 214-216)

No 4, 7, 20

Further Reading

Further Mathematics Project 3

Pages 86-95.

WEEK 4 1ST TERM

SUBJECT: Further Mathematics CLASS: SS 3

TOPIC: PARTIAL FRACTIONS

CONTENT:

(i) Basic definitions

(ii) Proper rational functions with linear factors (distinct and
repeated)

Subtopic 1: Basic Definitions

You know what a fraction is. ¼ is a fraction. When we have 3/5 + 2/x, , we
3 x +10
say that 3/5 and 2/x are the partial fractions of
5x

p (x)
Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials in a variable x. is called a rational
q(x )
fraaction in q(x) ≠ 0.

When the degree of p(x) is less than the degree of q(x), then the rational
function is called a proper rational function.
Any rational function can be expressed as the sum of a polynomail
function and a proper rational function.

Note that the sum and difference of two rational functions is a rational
function.

Example
2 1
(1)Simplify −
3 (1−x ) 3 ( 2+ x )
2 ( 2+ x )−(1−x ) 1+ x
−
3 (1−x ) ( 2+ x ) ( 1−x )(2+ x)
3 2 x−1
(2)Express + 2 as partial fraction
x+ 4 x −3 x +5
2
( x ¿¿ 2−3 x +5)+ ( 2 x +1 ) (x +4 ) 3 x −9 x +15+ (2 x−1 ) (x + 4)
= ¿= =
( x +4 ) (x 2−3 x+5) ( x +4 ) (x 2−3 x+ 5)
2
5 x −2 x +11
( x+ 4 )( x2 −3 x +5)
If we reverse these examples then, this is called the resolution of proper
p (x) f (x) q(x )
rational function into partial fractions of the form = +
q(x ) q(x ) t (x)

The degree of numerator must be less than the degree of the

denominator. We also take note of the factors of the denominator.

Example 2:
3 x +2 3 x +2 A B
can be resolved into partial fraction = +
( x+2 ) (x−5) ( x+2 ) (x−5) x +2 x−5

3 x +2 A ( x +5 )+ B(x +2)
= ; ∴3x+2 = A(x-5) + B(x+2)
( x+2 ) (x−5) ( x +2 ) (x−5)
17
Let x = 5, then B =
7
4
Let x = -2, then A =
7
3 x+ 2 4 17
∴ = +
( x +2 ) (x−5) 7(x +2) 7(x−5)

∴ 3 x+2 A(x-5)+B(x+2)

17 4 17
Let x=5, then B = ; ∴ +
7 7 (4 +2) 7( x−5)

We can equally resolve the using equation of coefficency.

 3 x +2 A ( x−5) B (x+ 2)
=∴ +
( x+2 ) (x−5) ( x +2 ) ( x −5 )
3x+2 = A(x-5) + B(x+2)

3x +2 = x(A+B) + 2B-5A
∴ A + B=3 ........ (1)

-5A + 2B =2 ........(2)

-5A + 2B = 2
17
7B = 17 ;B=
7
17 3 4
A+ =3 ; A = 3 -2 =
7 7 7
3 x+ 2 4 17
∴ = +
( x +2 ) (x−5) 7(x +2) 7(x−5)

EVALUATION

(1)Make these fractions single fraction

x 3 4 1
(a) + (b) -
x+1 2 x−1 2 x +3 x−2
1+ x
(2)Resolve into partial fraction
( 1−x ) (2+ x)

Sub Topic 2: Proper rational functions with linear factors (distinct and
repeated).

Partial fractions are of many types depending on the nature of the factors
of the denominator we are asked to resolve.

There are four different categories.

(a) Non-repeated linear factors at the denominator

(b)Non-linear factors that are not repeated
(c) Repeated factors linear or non-linear
(d)Improper fractions
(i) Non-repeated linear factors at the denominator

Those polynomial whose degree is less than they degree of the product of
the polynomial in the denominator. This is of the form

Q( x )
( a1 +b 1) … ( an +b n )
1 An
For each factor assign t h e ∂ fraction
a1 x+ b1 an x+ b1
 4 x+3
Example 3: Resolve into partial fractions
( x+2 ) (x+ 4)

Solution:
4 x+3 A B
= +
( x+2 ) (x+ 4) x+2 x+ 4

4x + 3 = A(x+4) + B(x+2)

4x+3 = x(A+B) + (4A+2B)

A+B = 4

4A + 2B = 3 ....... (1)

2A +2B = 8 ....... (2)

Subracting equation (2) from (1) we have

2A = -5 ; ∴A = -5/2 and B = 13/2
4 x+3 5 13 13 5
Then =- + = -
( x+2 ) (x+ 4) 2(x+ 2) 2 (x+ 4) 2 ( x + 4 ) 2 ( x +2 )

Example 4:
2
2 x +3 x−1
Resolve into partial fraction
x ( x 2−4 )
2 2
2 x +3 x−1 2 x +3 x−1
=
x ( x 2−4 ) x ( x−2 ) ( x+ 2 )
2
2 x + 3 x −1 A B C
∴ 2 = + +
x (x −4) x x−2 x+2
2
2 x +3 x−1 A ( x −1 )( x +2 )
= + B[ x ( x +2 ) ] +C [ x ( x−2 ) ]
x ( x−1 ) ( x+ 2 ) x

2 x +3 x−1 = A( x −4 ¿+ B( x + 2¿ +C[ x ( x−2) ]

2 2 2

2x2 + 3x – 1 = A (x2-4) + B(x2+2x) + C (x2-2x)

Let x = -2
1
1 = 8c , ∴ c=
8
13 1 14 2
(A+B+C)x = 2 ; + + 4 = 2 ; A = 2- =
8 8 8 8
2
2 x +3 x−1 1 13 1
= + +
x ( x−2 ) ( x+ 2 ) 4x 8(x−2) 8(x +2)
 (b)Non-repeated factors at the denominators follow the examples to
understand this. When the denominator is not factorisable then we
asign a power less by 1 i.e. if the power is n then we assign to the
numerator variable of power n-1.
x+5 A Bx+C
e.g. = + 2
(2 x+ 1)( x −2 x−1) 2 x +1 x −2 x−1
2

2 2
x −5 x−3 A Bx+C A Bx+C Dx + Ex + F
= + + + +
2 2
(2 x+ 1)(2 x +1)( x +1)( x −2 x −1) 2 x +1 x 2−2 x−1 2 x +1 x+1 3
2 x −x +1
2
2 x −3 x +1
Example 5: Resolve into partial fraction.
( x+1 )( x¿¿ 2+5 x +1)¿

Solution :

2 x2−3 x +1 A
+ 2
Bx+ C
=
( x+1 )( x¿¿ 2+5 x +1)¿ x+1 x −5 x +1

2x2-3x+1 = (A+B)x2+x(5A+B+C) + A+C

A+B= 2...............................i

A = 2-B.............................ii from (ii) B = 2-A

5A+B+C =-3

A+C = 1 ⇒ A=1-C ∴C=1-A

5A+2-A+1-A = 3-3 = -6 ⇒3A = -6 ; A=-2, B=4, C = 3

2
2 x −3 x +1 −2 4 x +3 A
∴ = +
2
( x +1 ) (x −5 x +1) x+1 x 2 +5 x+ 1

(c) Repeated factors at the denominator when the denominator has a

repeated linear factor of the form (ax+b) n. We assign partial
fractions of the form:
A1 A2 A
+ + ...+ n
a x+ b ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿¿¿

5 x+ 3 A B C +D
e.g. = + 2+
2
x ¿¿¿ x x x +2 ¿ ¿

Example 6
2
x +3 x +3
Resolve 2 into partial fractions
x ¿¿¿
2
x +3 x +3 A B C D
Solution: = + 2+ +
¿ ¿
2
x ¿¿¿ x x x +3
∴2x2+3x+3= A x ¿ ¿

1
If x = 0 ; 3 = 9D ; D =
3
Letx = 1

7 = 16A + 16B + 4C +D
16 1
7 = 16A + +4C
3 3
17
21 = 16A + 4C +
3
48A + 12C = 63-17

48A + 12C = 46

-12A + 6C = -2

48A +12C = 46

948A+24C= -8

36C = 38
38 19
C= =
36 18
19
-12A +6( ¿ = -2
18
1 1 25 1 25
-12A = -2-6 = -8 ; ∴A = - x =
3 3 3 3 36
2
x +3 x +3 25 1 19 1
= + 2+ +
2
x ¿¿¿ x 3 x 18(x +3) ¿ ¿

(d) improper fractions

We have improper fractions when the degree of the numerator is greater

thanthe denominator. To handle this, we use long division method before
resolving.

Example 7.
3 2
3 x +22 x +38 x +7
Resolve
( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 )

Solution
3 2
3 x +22 x +38 x +7
2
x +2 x−3
 2 3 x +16
¿ x + 2 x−3

√
3 2
3 x +22 x +38 x +7
3 2
3 x +6 x −9 x
16x2+47x+7
16x2+32x-48
15x+55
3 2
3 x +22 x +38 x +7 15 x+55
∴ =3 x +16+
( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 ) ( x−1 ) ( x+3 )
15 x +55 A B
= +
( x−1 )( x +3 ) x−1 x +3

15x + 55 = A(x+3) + B(x-1) =15x + 55 = (A+B)x + 3A – B

A+B = 55 ∴ 4 A=70
70 1 1
A= ; B = 15 - 17 = -2
4 2 2
3 2
3 x +22 x +38 x +7 70 5
=3 x +16+ +
( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 ) 4 ( x−1) 2(x +3)

EVALUATION

Resolve the following to partial fractions

(1)
3 2
x −1 ( 2 ) 2 x−52 ( 3) x−1 ( 4 ) 2 x+1 2 3 x −4 x + x−2
(5)
( x+2 )( x−3 ) ( x −4 ) ( x −9 ) ( x−2 ) ( x +5 ) ( x −4 ) ( x −9 )
2
( 2 x +1 ) ¿ ¿

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Express in partial fractions

2
( i ) x −3 x−7
( 2 x+3 ) ¿ ¿
3
(v)
( x−2 ) ( x 2+5 )
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Further Maths project Book 1 Third Edition. Page 102 exercise 7c Nos
14-20.

READING

Further Maths Project Book 1 Third Edition page 95-102.

 FURTHER MATHEMATICS SS 3 FIRST TERM E – LEARNING NOTE
TH
WEEK : 5
TOPIC: INTEGRATION
CONTENT : I. Understand integration as the reverse process of differentiation
1
II. Integration of algebraic polynomials including , logarithmic function
x
III. Definite integrals and application to Kinematics apply to Velocity – time and speed –
Time graphs.
IV. Areas under the curve; Trapezoidal rule; Volume of solids of revolution
SUB – TOPICS 1: Integration – the reverse process of differentiation
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. The symbol for integration is ∫ dx
dy
Recall that if y is a function of x , we represent the derivative of x with respect to ( w.r.t ) x , by .
dx
dy
Suppose that we are given the derivative of a function , ; The process by which we obtain y as
dx
a
dy
Function of x is known as integration. Given that =3 , then y=3 x is a solution. y=3 x +1 ,
dx
y=3 x +2 ,∧ y =3 x−3 , are also all solution , since the derivative of any constant is zero .
dy
Generally, if =a , then y is equal¿ the integral of a w . r . t . x , and the statement is
dx
written as y=∫ ad x=ax +b , where b is a constant. The solution of y is is called anti derivative.
2 2
x x
Thus, the anti – derivative of x is because if ¿ , then
2 2
2 3 3
dy x x x
=x∨dy=xdx ; thus∫ xdx= . Similarly, the anti – derivative of x is because if y= ,
2
dx 2 3 3
dy
=x ; i .e .∫ x dx .
2 2
Then
dx
Recall that the derivative of any constant is zero; so, for the anti – derivative of x∧x 2 in
2 3
x x
the examples above, we add an arbitrary constant, say k; thus ∫ xdx= + k∧∫ x 2 dx= +k
2 3
n+1
dy n x
The general solution of =x is y= +c , where c is the arbitrary constant of integration.
dx n+1
dy 1
Example : Let =1− 2 . Find y .
dx x

( 1
)
Solution: y=∫ 1− 2 dx=x+ + c
x
1
x
EVALUATION:
3
Evaluate : (a) ∫ x 5 /2 dx (b) ∫ x 5 dx (c) ∫ √ x 3 dx
 1
Sub – topic 2: Integration of algebraic polynomials including , logarithmic function
x
i. Integrating algebraic polynomial of the form f (ax +b)
du dx 1
Let u=ax +b , then =a ,∨ =
dx du a
dx
∴∫ f ( ax +b ) dx=∫ f ( u ) . . du
du

1
= ∫ f ( u ) . a . du
1
¿
a
∫ f ( u ) du

7
Example : Evaluate (i) ∫ 5
dx (ii) ∫ (2 x¿¿ 3−2)4 dx ¿
(5 x−4)
du du
Solutions : (i) Let u=5 x−4 , then =5 ,∨dx=
dx 5
Substituting appropriately into the questions it becomes;

7 7 du −5 du
∫ (5 x−4)5 dx =∫ u5 5
=∫ 7 u
5
−4
−7 u
= +c
20
−7
= 4
+c
20(5 x−4 )
3 du 2 du
(ii) Let u=2 x −2 , then =6 x ,∨dx = 2
dx 6x
Substituting into the questions we have
du 1
∫ (2 x¿¿ 3−2)4 dx=∫ u4 6 x 2 = 6 x 2 ∫ u4 du ¿
1 5
= 2
×(2 x ¿¿ 3−2) + c ¿
30 x

'
f (x )
ii. Integrating algebraic polynomial of the form ∫ dx∧∫ f ( x ) . f ' ( dx ) ,where f 'is
f (x)
the derivative of f ( x )

The first form of the integrals above is such that when we differentiate the denominator we
obtain the numerator, and in the second form, when we differentiate the first function we
obtain the second. The method of integrating the above forms of integrals is shown in the
examples below.
2 x +3
Example : Evaluate (i) ∫ x 2+ 3 x−5 dx (ii) ∫ sinx . cosxdx
 dy 1
Solution : (i) recall that it was proven under differentiation that if y=log e u , then = .
du u
1
It follows that ∫ u du=loge u∨ln u
du du 2 x +3 2 x+3 du
;∴ ∫ 2 dx=∫
2
Let u=x +3 x−5 , =2 x+3∨dx=
dx 2 x+3 x + 3 x−5 u 2 x +3

2 x +3 1
Hence ∫ dx=∫ =¿ log e u∨ln u+ c ¿ = ln ( x 2+ 3 x −5¿ +c ,
2
x + 3 x−5 u
2
since u=x +3 x−5.
dy
(ii) Recall that it was proven under differentiation that if y=sinu ,then =cos u∧¿
du
dy
if y=cos u , then
du
=−sin u . It follows that ∫ sin u du=−cos u∨¿ ¿
∫ cos du=sin u
du du du
Let u=sin x , =cos x∨dx= ; ∴ ∫ sinx . cosxdx=∫ u cosx
dx cos x cosx
2 2
∫ sinx . cosxdx=∫ u du= u2 + c = sin2 x + c
iii. Integrating fractional algebraic polynomial by resolving into partial fraction
2
x +1 x
Example: Evaluate the integral: (i) ∫ 2 dx (ii) ∫ dx
x −3 x+ 2 ( x +1 ) (x−1)2
Solution: recall the resolution of partial fraction from previous term;
x +1 x+1 A B
into ∂ fraction gives = + [by factorizing x 2−3 x+ 2]
2
x −3 x +2 ( x−1 ) (x−2) x−1 x−2
Multiplying through by the L.C.M. of x−1∧x −2 to solve for A and B we have;
A ( x−2 ) + B ( x−1 ) ≡ x+1
( A+ B ) x−2 A−B ≡ x +1
A+ B=1… .. ( 1 )∧−2 A−B=1 … …(2)
Substituting equ. (1) into (2) we obtain −2 A− (1−A )=1
− A−1=1 , ∴ A=−2 ; Hence , B=1− A=1−(−2 ) =3

x +1 A B −2 3 3 2
∴∫ dx=∫ ( + )dx=¿ ∫ ( + )dx=¿∫ dx−∫ dx ¿ ¿
2
x −3 x+ 2 x−1 x−2 x−1 x −2 x−2 x−1
= 3 ln (x−2) – 2 ln(x−1) + c
2 2
x x A B C
(ii) into ∂ fraction gives = + +
( x+1 )( x−1)2
( x+1 ) (x −1) x+1 x −1 ( x−1)2
2

Multiplying through by the L.C.M. of x +1∧(x−1)2 to solve for A and B we have;

2
A(x −1) +¿
A ( x 2−2 x+1 )+ B x 2−B+Cx+C ≡ x 2
¿ A+ B ≡1 … … (i)
−( 2 A−C ) ≡0 … … (ii)
 A−B+ C ≡0 ............... (iii)
From equ. (iii), C = B – A ; substituting for C in equation (ii), we obtain
−( 2 A−B+ A ) ≡ 0;
−3 A+ B=0 OR B=3 A ; substitute for B in equ (i)
1 3
∴ A= ∧B= ; substituting for A and B into equ. (iii) we get C thus;
4 4
1 3 1
− +C=0 ∴ C=
4 4 2
2
x
∴∫ dx = ∫ ¿ ¿
( x +1 ) ( x−1)2
1 3 1
= ln ( x +1 ) + ln ( x−1 )− +C
4 4 2(x−1)
iv. Integration of trigonometrical functions
Example: Evaluate the following (1) ∫ sin x dx (2) ∫ cos x dx (3) ∫ sin 4 x . cos 2 x dx
2 3

Solution: (1) we already know that ∫ sinxdx=−cosx +C∧∫ cosxdx=sin x +C

To integrate sin2 x we express the function in terms of the cosine of the double angle:
2 1
cos 2 x=1−2sin x ; ∴ sin x= (1−cos 2 x )
2
2
1
Substituting into the question we have ∫ sin 2 x dx=∫ (1−cos 2 x)dx
2
1
= ∫ (1−cos 2 x)dx
2
x 2x
= −sin +C
2 4
cos x=cos x . cos x ;
3 2 2 2
(2) cos x=1−sin x
∴ ∫ cos 3 x dx=∫ (1−sin ¿¿ 2 x )cos x dx ¿
= ∫¿¿
= ∫ cos x dx – ∫ cos x sin x dx
2

du du
; ∴ ∫ cos x sin x dx=∫ u cos x
2 2
Let u=sin x , dx=
cos x cos x
3
∴ ∫ cos x dx=¿ ∫ cos x dx – ∫ cos x sin2 x dx=−sin x− u3
3

3
sin x
¿−sin x− +C
3

1
(3) Recall the identity sin Acos B= [sin ( A+ B ) +sin ( A−B ) ] ; Substituting with
2
A=4 x∧B=2 x into the question we get;
1
∫ sin 4 x . cos 2 x dx= 2 ∫ {sin ( 4 x+ 2 x ) +sin ⁡(4 x −2 x )}dx
 1 1 1
=
2
∫ {sin 6 x +sin ⁡2 x }dx= ∫ sin 6 x dx+ ∫ sin 2 x dx
2 2
du
∧dv
Let du 6 dv
u=6 x∧v =2 x ; ∴ =6 , hence dx= =2 , hence dx=
dx dx 2
1 1 1 du 1 dv
∴ ∫ sin 6 x dx+ ∫ sin 2 x dx= ∫ sinu +¿ ∫ sin v ¿
2 2 2 6 2 2
1 1
¿− cosu− cosv
12 4
1 1
¿− cos 6 x− cos 2 x + C
12 4
Sometimes we may need to use trigonometric substitution to reduce a given integral form
into standard integral form. The following example shows how to solve such problems.
dx x dx
(1) Show that ∫ 2 2 =sin (¿ a )+c , where c is a constant . ¿ Hence find ∫
−1

√ a −x √ 3−x 2
Solution: Let y=sin
−1 x
()
a
x dx
; ∴ =sin y∨x =a sin y ;∴ =acos y∨ =
a dy
dy 1
dx acos y
Recall that cos 2 y =1−sin2 y∨cos y=√ 1−sin 2 y
1
dy 1 =¿ 1
∴ cos y =√ 1−¿ ¿ ¿ Hence, dx =

dx x
= 1−x 2
a √1−¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ a
a
2
√
√ a −x 2
2

∴∫ 2 2 =sin (¿ )+ c , where c is a constant .¿

−1

√a −x a
dx dx
To find ∫ , let a =3 ,∴ a=√ 3; hence ∫
2 −1
=sin ¿
√ 3−x 2
√3−x 2

dx 1 −1 x 8
(2) Show that ∫ 2 2 = tan ( +c ). Hence find ∫ 2 d x
x +a a a x +7

Solution : Let y=tan

−1
( xa ) ; ∴ ax =tan y ∨x=a tan y ; ∴ dxdy =a sec y∨ dydx = a sec1 y
2
2

2 2
cos y sin y 1 dy 1
∨1+ tan y ¿ sec y; ∴ =
2 2
Recall that + =
2 2
cos y cos y cos y
2 dx a (1+tan 2 y )
dy 1 1 dy 1 dx 1 −1 x
Hence = ; a dx = 2 2 ; ∴ ∫ 2 2 = tan ( )+c
dx a ¿ ¿ x +a x +a a a
8 dx 8 −1 x
Hence, to find ∫ dx , let a =7 , then a=¿ √ 7; ∴ ∫ 2 = tan ( )+ c
2

x +7 √ 7 √7
2
x +7
v. Integrating algebraic polynomial of the form ∫ f ( x ) . g(x) where none of f ( x )∨g (x)
is the derivative of the other
d du dv
Let f ( x )=u∧g ( x )=v ; then¿ the product rule , (uv )=v + u
dx dx dx
d du dv
By rearranging we have ( uv )−v =u
dx dx dx
 By integrating both sides with respect to x, we have
d du dv
∫ dx ( uv ) dx−¿ ∫ v dx dx=∫ u dx dx ¿OR uv−∫ v du=∫ udv
The last derivation is known as integration by parts formula. This method is used in
integrating a product which is such that part of it can easily be integrated
Examples:- Determine the following: (1) ∫ x . cosx dx (2) ∫ xlnx dx(3) ∫ x e dx
x

(1) Let u=x , then dx=du ; Let dv =cos x dx then v=∫ cos x dx=sin x
Hence, ∫ xcosxdx=xsinx−∫ sinxdx
¿ xsinx+ cos x+ C
2
x dx
(2) Let dv =x dx , then v=∫ xdx= ; Let u=ln x thendu=
2 x
2 2
x x dx
Hence, ∫ x .lnxdx=ln x −∫
2 2 x
2 2
x x
¿ ln x − +C
2 4
(3) Let u=x , then dx=du ; Let dv =e dx then v=∫ e dx=e
x x x

Hence ∫ x e dx=x e −∫ e dx
x x x

x x
¿ xe −e +C
EVALUATION:
1
1. Using the substitution u=x2 +1 , find ∫ (x 2+1) 2 xdx
2. Using the substitution u=1+ x2 or otherwise, evaluate
x
∫ 3
dx
( x 2+ 1 ) 2
3. Using the substitution u=cos x or otherwise, find ∫ sin x cos xdx
5

4. Integrate each of the following w.r.t. x :

i. xsin 2 x ii. ln x 2 iii. x 2 cos x2 iv. sec 2 (5 x +3)
x−3
5. Solve ∫ 2 dx by first resolving into partial
x −3 x+ 2
SUB – TOPIC 3: Definite integrals and application to Kinematics (Velocity – time and speed –
Time graphs)
The difference between integrals which are evaluated for two given values of the
b
independent variable is called a definite integral and it is denoted symbolically by ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
'
With ' a ∧' b ' the lower and upper limits of the integral respectively.
b
The integral, ∫ f ( x ) dx , geometrically represents the area bounded by the curve
a

y=f ( x ) , the lines x=a , x=b∧the x−axis .

3
Example: (i) Evaluate ∫ ( 3 x +2 x−1 ) dx
2

2
 3
Solution : ∫ ( 3 x 2 +2 x−1 ) dx=¿ [x ¿ ¿ 3+ x 2−x +c ]32 ¿ ¿
2

¿ ¿ ¿ +32−3+ c ¿−( 23+ 23−2+c )

= (33 + c) – (10 + c)
= 33 + c – 10 – c = 23

π /2

(ii) Evaluation : ∫ cos x dx

0
π /2

Solution : ∫ cos x dx = ¿
0
π
= (sin +c ¿−(sin 0+ c)
2
= (1+c) – (0 + c) = 1
Application to Kinematics (apply to Velocity – time and speed - Time graphs)
If the velocity is given as a function of time, then the displacement is the integral of the velocity
function with respect to the time variable.
ds
Thus if the displacement, s, is such that =f ( t ) , then s=∫ f ( t) dt
dt
= f ( t ) +c
The constant of integration is determined by the initial conditions.
Similarly, if the acceleration is a function of time, the velocity can be obtained by
integrating the acceleration function with respect to time.
dv
Thus if the velocity V is such that =¿ f ( t ) ; then V = ∫ f (t )dt
dt
= f ( t ) +c
-1
Example : The velocity, V ms , at any time t seconds of a particle moving in a straight line is
V =2t −2 t+3. find, in metres, the distance covered by the particle when its acceleration is
2

zero.
2 dv
Solution : from V =2t −2 t+3 , =¿ 4 t−2
dt
dv 1
When the acceleration is zero, =¿ 0. therefore , 4 t−2=0; hence t=
dt 2
Let Sbe the distance covered when its acceleration is zero;
ds
Then =¿ V =2t 2−2 t+3 ;
dt
1 /2 1 /2
2
S=¿ ∫ ( 2t 2−2 t+3)dt ; S=[ t ¿ ¿ 3−t +3 t +c ] ¿
2

0 3 0

S=¿ ¿
1 1 3 4
= − + =
2 4 2 13
Example : The velocity, V ms-1 , of a body after time t seconds is given by V =3t 2−2 t−3. find,
in metres, the distance covered during the 4th second.
Solution : Let Sbe the distance covered during the 4th second. Then
4 4
S=¿ ∫ v dt=∫ (3 t 2−2 t−3)dt
3 3
4
= [t ¿ ¿ 3−t 2 −3t +c ]3 ¿
= (64 – 16 – 12 + c) – (27 – 9 – 9 + c)
= 27m
Evaluation :
1. Evaluate the following:
4 9 π /2 3

i. ∫ (x−1) dx 2
ii. ∫ √dxx iii. S=¿ ∫ x sin x iv. S=¿ ∫ (x +2)
2

1 4 0 −1
dy
2. If =4 , find y ∈terms of x , giventhat y=10 when x=−2
dx
3. A particle moves along a straight line so that after ‘t’ sec its distance ‘S’ cm from the
starting point O is given by
3 2
S=t −15 t +63 t−40 . Find :
a. The distance from O when the particle is momentarily at rest
b. The velocity when the acceleration is zero.
SUB – TOPIC 4: Areas under a curve; Trapezoidal rule; Volume of solids of revolution
b

Recall that we interpreted the integral ∫ f (x )dx as the area bounded by the curve y=f ( x ) . One
a

application of a definite integral is finding the area bounded by the curve y=f ( x ) , the x−axis and
the ordinates at x=a∧x=b . The following are some properties of definite integral relating
to area bounded by a curve:
c b b

i. Let A1=∫ f ( x )dx , and A2=∫ f ( x )dx ;If A=∫ f (x ) dx then A=A 1 + A 2
a a a
b c b

Hence ∫ f (x )dx =∫ f (x )dx+∫ f (x )dx

a a c

ii. We can change the limit of an integral thus:

b a

∫ f (x )dx =−∫ f ( x )dx

a b

iii. Let A1 be the area bounded by the curve y=f 1 (x ), the lines x=a , x=b and the
x-axis. Let A2 be the area bounded by the curve y=f 2 (x ) the lines x=a , x=b
and the x-axis. If we denote the area common to the two curves by A , then
b b
A=A 1− A2 =¿ ∫ f 1 ( x)dx−∫ f 2 (x) dx .
a a

iv. The area bounded by the curve x=f ( y ) , the lines y=c , y=d and the y−axis is
d

given by: A=∫ f ( y ) dy .

c
Examples : (a) Find, in square units, the area of the finite region bounded by the curve
y=x + 4 x+ 2 and the lines y=0 , x=3∧x=6 .
2

Solution :

2
y=x + 4 x+ 2

3 6

Let A square units be the required area, then

6
A=¿ ∫ y dx .
3
6 6
1
= ∫ ( x + 4 x+ 2 ) dx=¿ ¿ [ x ¿ ¿ 3+ 2 x +2 x + c] ¿
2 2

3 3 3

= (72+72+12+c) – (9+18+6+c) = 123

EVALUATION:
Further Mathematics Project 3 M. R. Tuttuh – Adegun and others.
Questions 15 – 20

WEEK 6 FIRST TERM

SUBJECT: FURTHER MATHEMATICS

CLASS: SS 3

TOPIC: Conic Sections

CONTENT:
 (i) Equations of parabola, Eclipse, Hyperbola in rectangular
Cartesian coordinates
(ii) Parametric equations

Sub-Topic (i): Equations of parabola, ellipse, hyperbola in rectangular

coordinates

The path (or locus) of a point which moves so that its distance from a
fixed point is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line is called a
conic section or a conic.

The fixed point F is called the focus, the fixed line is called the directrix,
and the constant ratio is called eccentricity, usually denoted by e.

P
M

Fixed line

F (Fixed point)
Thus, if F is a point on the locus (as shown in the diagram above), M is the
PF
foot of the perpendicular from P to the directrix and if =e , then the
PM
locus of F is a conic. If e<1, the conic is an ellipse. If e = 1, the conic is a
parabola. If e>1, the conic is a hyperbola.

Parabola: a parabolayis the locus of points in a plane which is equidistant

from a fixed line and a fixedx point. Let L be the fixed line and F the fixed
pointM(-a, y)
as shown below. Through F draw the x-axis perpendicular to the
P(x,y)
s
fixed line of distance 20 units from F. From the definition of the parabola,
the curve must cross the x-axis at a point 0, midway between F and L.
Then draw the y-axis
a
through 0. The co-ordinates of F are (a, 0).

V
(-a, 0) F(a,0)
y
x
M(-a, y) P(x,y)
R
s

V
(-a, 0) F(a,0)

R
 PF
If p(x,y) is any point on the parabola such that =e=1 ... (i)
PM
then (PF)2 = (x-a)2 + y2 (from Pythagoras rule)
PF
and PM = X+A; but =1 (from equation 1)
PM
∴PM = PM; so, (PF)2 = (PM)2 (by squaring both side)

⇒ (x-a)2 + y2 = (x+a)2

or x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 = x2 + 2ax + a2

therefore, the equation of a parabola is y2 = 4ax

the line segment through the focus and perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry, and with end points S and R on the parabola, is called the lotus
rectum. The point V is called the vertex of the parabola.

Special Cases;
(b) y
(a) y

y2=4ax y2=-4ax

F(-a,0) x
F(a,0) x

(d) y
(c) y
directrix

x2=4by
F(-a,0)

x
x F(0, -b)

directrix x2=-4by
If the vertex of the parabola y2 =4ax is translated to the point (x1,y1), the
equation of the corresponding parabola becomes (y-y 1)2 = 4a(x-x1) and if
the vertex of the parabola becomes (x-x1)2 = 4a(y-y1). The above
equations are said to be in their standard or canonical form.

Examples:

(1) Find the foci and directices of these parabolas:

(a) y2 = 32x
(b)x2 = 12y

Solution:

(a) by comparing y2 = 32x with y2 =4ax,

4 a 32
⇒ = ∴ a = 8.
4 4
Hence, the focus is (4,0) while the directrix is x = -4

(b)by comparing x2 = 12y with x2 = 4by

12 32
⇒ = ∴ b = 3.
4 4
Hence, the focus is (0,3) while the directrix is y = -3.

(2) Write the equation of the following parabola in their canonical forms
and hence determine their vertices, foci and directrices:

(a) y2-6y-2x+19 = 0

(b) x2+4x+4y+16 = 0

Solution:

(a) y2-6y+9-2x+10 = 0 (complete the square for y)

y2-6y+9=2x-10

(y-3)2 = 2(x-5)

Comparing our solution with the general with the general canonical form,
i.e.

(y-y1)2 = 4a (x-x1)

⇒ y1 = 3, x1 =5, 4a = 2 ∴ a = ½

Hence, the vertex is (5,3), the focus (5 + ½, 3) = (11/2, 3) and the

directrix is x = 5 – ½ = 4½ = 9/2.

(b)x2+4x+4y+16 = 0

x2+4x+4+4y+12 = 0
x2+4x+4 = -4y-12

(x+2)2 = -4(y+3)

Comparing our solution with the general canonical form,

⇒ x1 = -2, y1 = -3,

(x-x1)2 = 4b(y-y1)

⇒ x1 = -2, y1 =-3,
4 b −4
= =−1
4 4
Hence, the vertex is (-2, -3), the focus (-2, -3+(-1)) = (-2, -4) and the
directrix is y = -3-(-1) = -3+1 = -2

Equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola

(a) equation of the tangent to y2 = 4ax at point (x1,y1) by differentiating

y2 = 4ax implicitly, we obtain
dy dy 4 a 2 a
2y =4 a ⇒ = =
dx dx 2 y y

dy 2 a y − y1 2 a
At (x1,y1), = ∴ =
dx y 1 x−x 1 y 1

y1 ( y− y 1 ¿ = 2a ( x−x 1 ¿

y1 y− y 2 = 2ax – 2ax,

Since (x1,y1) is on y2 = 4ax, ⇒ y12 = 4ax1

Thus, yy1-4ax = 2ax – 2ax1

yy1=2ax-2ax1 + 4ax1

yy1 = 2a(x+x1)

Equation of the normal to y1 = 4ax at the point (x1,y1)

⇒ y= y (x- x 1)
2a
1

2a
∴ slope of t h e tangent is ¿
y1

y=mx+c
− y1
∴ slope of the normal is , since the normal is perpendicular to tangent,
2a
and m1m2 = -1, where m1 and m2 are the slopes of the normal and the
tangent at (x1, y1)
⇒ y− y 1=
− y1 y− y 1 −(x−x 1)
¿) or =
2a y1 2a

Example (3): Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the
parabola y2 = 12x at one end of its latus rectum.

Solution:

y2 = 12x compared to y2 = 12x ⇒ 4 a=12 ∴a=2

One end of its latus rectum is L ≡ (3,6)

Tangent at (x1,y1) is yy1 = 2a(x+x1)

Here, (x1,y1) = (3,6) and a = 3

∴ Tangent at L is y(6) = 6(x+3) i.e. y = x+3
y− y 1 −(x−x 1 )
Normal at (x1,y1) is =
y1 2a

y−6 −(x−3)
So normal at L is = i.e. y=-x+9
6 6
Example (4):

Find the equations of the tangent and normal at (1,2) on the parabola
x2+x-2y+2 = 0

Solution:

Differentiate x2+x-2y+2 = 0 with respect to x (w.r.t.x) to get the slope(m)

⇒ 2 x+1−2 =0 ,
2 x +1 2 dy
dy =
2 dx
dx
2

⇒ Equation of the tangent is y− y 1 = m (x-x1)

dy 2(1)+1 3
At (1,2), = = =m
dx 2 2

( x−1) or 2y-4 = 3 (x-1) ⇒ 2y – 4 = 3x – 3, 3x-2y+1 = 0

3
i.e. y-2=
2
Equation of the normal at (1,2) is
−1 2
y - y1 =
m
( x−x 1 ) ⇒ y−2=¿ - (x-1) or 3y – 6 = -2(x-1)
3
⇒ 3 y−6=−2 x +2. 2x + 3y – 8 = 0
THE ELLIPSE: An ellipse is the points, the sum of whose distance from
two fixed points is constant.

If the two fixed points, called foci, are taken at F 1(-c,0) and F2(c,0)
y
x=- x=

(0,b)V3
P(x,y)

Then from the definition,

⇒ (x +c )2+ y 2+ √ ¿ ¿
x
V2 (-a,0) F1 (-c,0) 0 F2 (c,0) (a,0) V1
PF1 + PF2 = 2a √
Squaring both sides and collecting terms, we have
(0,-b) V4
( x +c ) + y2 = 4a2 – 4a√ (x−c)2 + y 2 + ( x−c) +y2
2 2

x2 + 2xc + c2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a √ (x−c)2 + y 2 + x2 - 2xc + c2 + y2

Directrix Directrix
4xc – 4a2 = -4a√(x−c)2 + y 2

Divide through by -4a

−4 a √(x−c ) + y
2 2 2
−4 xc −4 a
− =
−4 a −4 a −4 a
−xc
+ a = √(x−c)2 + y 2
a
Square both sides

⇒¿ ⇒ 2 – y2 = x2 – a2 + c2 ⇒ 2 + a2 - c2 = x2 + y2 ⇒ a2 - c2 = y2 + x2 -
2 2 2 2
x c x c
a a
2 2 2 2
x c a −c
2 ; a2 - c 2 = y 2 + x 2 ( 2 )
a a
1
Multiply through by 2 2
a −c
2 2 2
1 2 2 y 2 a −c 1
⇒ 2 2
x a −c = 2 2
+ x ( 2 )x 2 2
a −c a −c a a −c
 2 2
x y
1= 2 + 2 2 ... (i)
a a −c
Hence, the four vertices are V1(√ 10 , 0), V2(−√ 10 , 0), V3(0,3) and V4(0,-3)

Since c2 = a2 – b2
⇒ c = ± 1; Hence,

F1(-1, 0) and F2 (1,0)

(b)5y2 + 6x2 = 30
2 2
x y
To compare 5y2 + 6x2 = 30 with 2 + 2 = 1
b a
First, divide through by 30

⇒ ⇒ ⇒b2 = 6, ∴ b = ±√ 6
2 2 2 2
5y 6x 30 y x
+ = + =1
30 30 30 5 5
Hence, the four vertices are V1(−0 , √ 6), V2(0 , √ 6), V3(√ 5 ,0) and V4(√ 5,0)

Since c2 = a2 – b2, ⇒ c2 = 6- 5 = √ 1 = ±1 ∴ F1(0, -1) and F2 (0, 1)

(2) Write the equation of the ellipse 4x 2+5xy2-24x-20y+36 = 0 in the

canonical form and hence, determine:

(i) the coordinates of the centre of the ellipse;

(ii) The four vertices of the ellipse;
(iii) The two foci of the ellipse

Solution:

4x2+5xy2-24x-20y+36 = 0

Rearrange :

4x2+5xy2-24x-20y = -36

4(x2-6x) + 5(y2-4y) = -36

4(x2-6x+9-9) + 5(y2-4y + 4-4) = -36

(Complete each square in x and y and subtract the value added for
completing the square)

4(x2-6x+9) – 36 + 5(y-2)2 – 20 = -36

4(x-3)2 – 36 + 5(y-2)2 -20 = -36

4(x-3)2 + 5(y-2)2 = -36 + 36 + 20

4(x-3)2 + 5(y-2)2 =20

Divide through by 20 so we can compare with ¿ ¿ = 1

⇒ 4 ¿¿ + 5¿¿ = ⇒ ¿¿ + ¿¿ = 1
20
20
Hence,

(i)
(ii)
The coordinate of the centre = (6,2)
Comparing ¿ ¿ + ¿ ¿ = 1 with ¿ ¿ + ¿ ¿ = 1

⇒ b2 = 5, ∴ b = ±√ 5 , a2 = 4, ∴ a = ±2

Hence, the vertices on the vertical axes are

V1(0+x1, a + y1) = V1(3,4),

V2 (0+x, -a + y) = V2 (3,0),

V3(b+x1, 0+y1) = V3(√ 5+3 , 2¿ ,

V4(-b+x1, 0+y1) = V4(−√ 5+3 , 2¿ ,

The of the tangent, and at normal (x1,y1) to the Ellipse

2 2
x y
By differentiating the equation of ellipse i.e. 2 + 2 = 1 implicitly and
a b
y− y 1 dy xx1 y y1
substituting for , we obtain 2 + 2 = 1 as equation of tangent.
x−x 1 dx a b
For equation of the normal at (x 1, y1), since m1m2 = -1 for perpendicular
dy
lines, it implies that by dividing -1 by got from implicit differentiation of
dx
equation of ellipse and substituting x1 and y1, we obtain.
y− y 1 a y1
2
= 2
x−x 1 b x1
Example (4): Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse
at x2+4y2 = 4 at (4,1)

Solution:

Rewriting

x2+4y2 = 4, we have

⇒ a2 = 4 , ∴ a = 2; b2 = 1, ∴ b= 1
2 2
x y
+ =1
4 1
xx1 y y1
Equation of tangent at (x1,y1) is 2 + 2 =1
a b
Hence, the equation of the tangent at (4, 1) is
 =1, ⇒x+y=1
x(4) y (1)
+
4 1
Equation of the normal at (x1, y1) is

⇒
y− y 1 a y1
2
y−1 4 (1)
= 2 =
x−x 1 b x1 x−4 1(4)

y–1=x–4; x – y = –3

The hyperbola: a hyperbola is the locus of a point P, moving in a plane

such that its distances from two fixed points called foci have a constant
difference. For a hyperbola, the yeccentricity (e) > 1.

P(x,y)

F1 (-c,0) (-c,0) V2 0 V1 (a, 0) F2 (c, 0) x

From the definition of a hyperbola and following the diagram above, we

have PF1 – PF2 = 2a

⇒ √(x−c)2 + y 2 - √ (x +c )2+ y 2 = 2a
2 2
x y
By simplifying and substituting b2 = c2 - a2 we obtain 2 - 2 = 1
a b
If the centre of the hyperbola is translated to the point (x 1, y1), the
equation of the hyperbola in canonical form becomes

¿¿ - ¿¿ = 1
The points V1(a,0) and V2(-a,0) are the vertices of the hyperbola. The
points F1(c,0) and F2(-c,0) are the foci of the hyperbola.

ASYMTOTES OF THE CURVE

The left hand side of the equation of a hyperbola is a difference of two

squares, i.e.

x
2
y
2
⇒ −
x y
( )( x y
) ( − )=
⇒ a b
x y 1
⇒ xb+ ay =
1
ab
a
2 -
b
2 = 1
a b
+
a b
=1
( ax − by ) ab
xb+ay
 x y ab
Thus, − =
a b xb+ay
Consider the R.H.S. of the equation; when we divide the numerator and
denominator by x, we have
ab
ab y ab
= ; as y → ∞ , →0
xb+ay x b ay xb+ay
−
x x
ab
ab y ab
Also, = ; as y → ∞ , →0
bx+ ay bx a y bx+ ay
−
y y

So as x and y approach infinity the expression on the R.H.S of the

x y ab
equation − = approaches zero. Hence, the expression of the
a b xb+ay
L.H.S must also approach zero as x and y approach infinity i.e.
x y
− →0
a b
x y b
The straight line − = or y = x is called an oblique asymptote. The
a b a
−b
curve is symmetrical about the axis, so the line y = x is also another
a
oblique asymptote.
xx1 y y1
Equation of the tangent and normal at the point (x 1, y1) is 2 + 2 =1
a b
y− y 1 −a2 y 1
and the equation of the normal is = 2 = 1 or a2xy1 + b2x1y = (a2
x−x 1 b x1
+ b2)x1y1

Examples (5): find the vertices and foci of the parabola 25x2 – 4y2 =
100

Solution:

⇒
2 2
25 x 4 y
− =1
100 100
2 2
x y
Comparing with the canonical form, i.e. 2 − 2 =1
a b

We have a2 = 4, ⇒ a = ±2 and b2 = 25, ⇒ b = ±5

Since b2 = c2 – a2, ⇒ c2 – a2, ⇒ c2 = b2 + a2 = 25 + 4 = 29 ∴ a = ±√ 29

The vertices are V1(2,0) and V2(-2,0) and the foci F1(-√ 29, 0) and F2(√ 29, 0)
Example (6): obtain the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (6,4)
and (-4, 4) and the electricity is 2.

Solution:

Let F1, F2 and C lie on the line y = 4. The coordinates of the centre the
mid-point of the line joining the vertices which are
2
, (
6+(−4 ) 4+ 4
2
=(1 , 4 ) )
2 2
( x−1) ( y−4)
The equation of the hyperbola is therefore − =1
a2 b2
Shifting the origin to (1,4), we put x = x 1+1, y = y1+4
2 2
x y
Then the equation becomes 2 − 2 =1
a b
c
The distance between the two foci is 2ae (since e = ¿ , and this is equal
a
to the actual distances 10.

⇒ 2a =
10 10 5
∴ 2ae = 10, = , a=
e 2 2

Since b2 =c2 – a2 ⇒ b2 =a2 e2 – a2

25 75
b2 = a2 (e2 -1) = ( 4−1 )=
4 4
Hence the equation of the hyperbola is

⇒
2 2
( x−1) ( y−4) 2 2
− =1 4 (x−1) 4 ( y−4)
25 75 - =1
25 75
4 4
Multiplying through by 75, we have

12(x-1)2 – 4(y-4)2 =1

12(x2-2x+1)-4(y2-8y+16) =1

12x2-24x+12-4y2+32y-64-1=0

12x2-4y2-24x+32y-53=0

EVALUATION

(1) Write down the equation of the ellipse 2x2+5y2+8x+10y+3=0

(2) Write the equation of the parabola y 2+4y+4x+16=0 in its
canonical form and determine the vertices, foci and directrix.
 (3) Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
hyperbola 4x2-5y2=20 (√ 10 ,2 ¿.

SUB-TOPIC 2:

Parametric Equations of parabola, Ellipse and hyperbola so far considered

are of the form y =f(x), where a direct relationship between x and y is
given. This form is called the cartessian equation.

However, it is more convenient sometimes to express both x and y in

terms of a third variable, called a parameter, that is, x=f(t), y=g(t)

Each value of the parameter ‘t’ gives a value of x and a value of y.

Parametric Equations of the straight line

To find the parametric equations of a straight line passing through a given

point (x1,y1) and inclined to the x-axis at an angle θ with 0x. Let the line
be considered as the locus of a moving point p(x,y). Let PQ = r.

Draw PM and QN perpendicular to the x-axis and QL perpendicular to PM.

x−x 1 y− y 1
Then, = cosθ and =sin θ
r r
y A
P(x,y)

y-y1
r

Q(x,y) y1

θ x1 x-x1
0 N M x
x−x 1 y− y 1 L
or = r and =r
cosθ sinθ
x−x 1 y− y 1
or = =r
cosθ sinθ

⇒ x1 + r cosθ , y=y1 + sinθ

These are parametric equations of a straight line through the paint (x 1,y1)
with inclination θ . It follows that the parametric coordinates are (x 1 + r cos
θ, y=y1 + sinθ ).

Parametric equations of a circle, x2 + y2 = a2

Let the equation of a circle be x 2 + y2 = a2. Let p(c,y) be any point on the
circle and PM be the perpendicular from p to the x-axis. Let OP, which is
equal to a in length, make an angle θ with OX. y

P(x,y)

Then x = acosθ , y=asinθ

These are the parametric equations of the circle x 2 + y2 = a2 where θ is

the parameter. It also follows that the parametric coordinates are (acosθ,
asinθ). If the equation of the circle is in general form, i.e. (x-h) 2 + (y-k)2
=a2, then the parametric equations are (h+acosθ, K+asin θ).

Parametric equations of the parabola y2=4ax

The y2=4ax when divided through by 2ay gives

2
y 4 ax y 2x
= , i. e . = =t , say .
2 ay 2 ay 2a 2 y
2
yt 2at
Then, y =2at and x ¿ = =a t
2
2 2
Hence, the parametric equations of the parabola y 2=4ax are x=at2 and
y=2at, where t is the parameter. y

y=2at

x=at2
Since the point (at2, 2at) satisfies the equation y2=4ax, therefore the
parametric coordinates of any point on the parabola are (at 2, 2at).

Tangents and Normals of Parametric Equations

dy dy dt dy dx
We use the relationship (composite rule) = x = ÷
dx dt dx dx dt
To find the gradient of a curve in terms of the parameter and hence the
equations of the tangent and normal.

Examples:

(1) Find the parametric equations of the line through (3,-2) having
inclination equal to 1350.

Solution:

Parametric coordinate are (x + r cosθ , y + sinθ)

⇒ x = 3 + rcos θ 135, y = -2+rsin135

⇒ x = 3 - rcos 450, y = -2+rsin45

⇒x=3-
r r
r , y = -2+ r
√2 √2
(2) Find the parametric equations of the circle (1,5) and radius 3.

Solution:

Parametric equations of at circle at (1,5) and r = 3 given by x =

h+acosθ, y=k+asin θ

⇒ x = 1 + 3cosθ, y = 5+asinθ

(3) Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x =4t-
1, y=2t2 at the point where t = 1

Solution: the gradient of the tangent is given by

dy dy dt dy dx 4 t
= x = ÷ =
dx dt dx dx dt 4
The equation of the tangent at the point (4t-1, 2t 2) will be (y-2t2) = t[x-(4t-
1)] i.e. from y-y1 = m(x-x1), equation of straight line

⇒ y-2 = (x-3) ⇒ y = x-1

The gradient of the normal is -1/t

Hence, the equation of the normal at (4t-1, 2t 2) is

y-2t2 =-1/t(x-4t+1)

when t=1, y-2 = -1(x-4+1) ; y = 3-x ; y=5-x

EVALUATION

(1) Find the equation of the line tangent to the given curve at the
given point:
(a) X=2t-1, y=4t2-2t; t=1 (b). X=3cosθ, y=2sinθ; θ=π/4
 t
(2) Find the Equation of tangent on the curve given by x = ,y=
1+ t
2
t
, at the point where t = 1.
1+ t
GENERAL EVALUATION

(1) Find the equation of the parabola with focus (3,0) and directrix 1.
(a) y2=3x (b) y2=4x (c) y2=6x (d) y2=12x
(2) Which of the following does the equation 4x 2-4y2 = a represents?
(3) Find the parametric equation passing through (-1,4), and inclined
r 2r
at angle θ =600 (a) x = -1- , y=−5+ (b) x = 1+√ 5, y=-5+2r√ 5
√5 √5
r 2r r 2r
(c) x=1+ , y =1- (d) x=-1+ , y =5-
√5 √r √5 √5
THEORY

(1)Find the eccentricity of the ellipse 2x2+4y2 = 4

(2)Show that if the line Ax +By +C = 0 must be a tangent to the
2 2
x y
hyperbola 2 − =1, then the condition A 2a2-B2b2 = C2 must be
a b
satisfied.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Further Mathematics project 2 by Tuttuh-Adegun, M.R. and others, page

220-221; No. 11 (b) and (d), 15 (b) and (d), 20(a)

READING ASSIGNMENT

Further Mathematics project 2 by Tuttuh-Adegun, M.R. and others, page

210-219.
WEEK 7

TOPIC: CORRELATION

CONTENT:

(1)Concept of corellation as emasure of realtionship

(2)Scatter diagrams
(3)Rank correlation
(4)Tied ransk

Subtopic 1:

Concept of correlation as measure of relationships

We have consideered in our last discussions on finding measures of

location and the spread. We call such data univariate data. In this
discussion, we want to look at situation when two variables are ovbserved
on each unit of the variables. When considering marks of a stuent in
physics and mathematics. This is called bivariate data. We can also
consider the height and weight together.

When we consider the two sets of univariate data as one bivariate,

Association is formed. When a stuent scored high mark in maths we want
to see if he will score hgih in English or he will score low. Then we want to
find out it the two marks can be considered. When we do that an
association is formed, when we begin to find out how we can use the
marks in mathematics to predict the mark in English then we are looking
at correlation between them. When two variables x and y are related,
then we say they are correlation.

Correlation coefficient is the measure of the degree of association

betweeen x and y. There are two things we shall consider:
(i) When both variables are quantitatively measured such as marks,
height and age.
(ii) When the variable values are put in ranks form 1 st, 2nd, 3rd ...

Sub-Topic 2: Scatter Diagram

Suppose x and y are random variables with measured values of students

marks in mathematics and chemistry. If the scores are recorded as (x 1,
y1), (x2, y2), ... (x2n, yn), then, we want to plot them on a rectangular
coordinate system. The reuslting set of pints is called a scatter diagram.
See some example of scatter diagram below.

Y
Y
 y
y

If a scatter diagram looks like (1) above then there is a positive correlation
between x and y. This is because an increase incorrelation
Positive x leads to an increase
X in
Positive
y. correlation X

The second diagram shows a negative correlation between x and y since

an increase in x leads to a decrease in y.

Figure 4. above shows no correlation between x and y since sometimes a

high value of y yields a high value of x and vice-versa. Thus x and y are
said to be uncorrelated. If all points seem to lie near some curve, the
correlation is said to be non-linear.

Line of best fit

Generally, more than one curve of a given type will appear to fit a set of
data. If every student in the class is asked to draw a free hand line that
best fits the scatter diagram in (1), it is likely that many different lines will
emerged.

In order to avoid such individual error in constructing a line that best fits
the scatter diagram, it is necessary to devise a means of achieving this. A
way of drawing this line is to draw a line that passes through the point ( x , y
) in such a way that it is about equidistant from the extreme values on
both sides. See example below:

Y
x Line of best fit
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x
x x x x x
x
x x x x x
x x xx x x
x x x
x x x x on the gradient-intercept form of equation of a
The concept xisx based
x
x x
straight line. Remember y = ax+b, where a is the slope and b is the
intercept on the y-axis.
X
The average of the squared distances of scatter points from the least
squares line is minimum. This is why we referred to the line as least
squares line. Thus the sum of the squares of the deviations of each point
must be very close to zero d 12 + d22 + ... + dn2. This line is also called
regression line.

Mathematically, the least squares line is give by

∑(x−x )( y− y )
a= b = y - ax
∑¿ ¿
also

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x)(∑ y )
∑ ( x−x ) ( y− y ) = ∑ ( xy−x y−x y + xy ) =
n
n ∑ xy −(∑ x )(∑ y )
∑ ¿- x )2 = n∑ x 2−¿ )2 ∴ a=
n ∑ x2 −(∑ x )2

Examples 1. Fit a regression line for the bivariate data

Text 6 8 4 7 3 5 9 10 6 1
score
Aptitud 5 6 3 5 3 2 7 8 4 2
e score

Solution:

X Y x2 xy
6 5 36 30
8 6 64 48
4 3 16 12
7 5 49 35
3 3 9 9
5 2 25 10
9 7 81 63
10 8 100 80
6 4 36 24
1 2 1 2
∑ x=¿ 59 ∑ y=¿45 ∑ x =¿59
2
∑ xy=¿313

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x)(∑ y )
a=
n ∑ x 2−(∑ x )2

10 x 313− (59 ) (45)

a= 2 = 0.689
10 ( 417 )−( 59 )

n∑x 59
x= = = 5.9
n 10
 ∑y 45
y= = = 4.9
n 10
b = y - a x = 4.5 – 01.6894 x 5.9 = 4.5-4.067 = 0.433

Hence, the regression line equation is

y = 0.6894 x + 0.433

This is a regression line of y on x. It is equally possible to have line of

regression of x on y.

In that case y becomes the independent variables while x is dependent on

y. The scatter diagram and the regression line show us if there is
relationship between x and y and the type of relationship that exists
between them. It may be linear or non-linear relationship.

When confirmed that there is a linear association between x and y, we

then want to evaluate quantitatively the amount of linear relationship
between x and y is called coefficient of correlation.

EVALUATION

Draw a scatter diagram for the following bivariate data

X 2 3 5 6 8 9 10 11 14
Y 3 2 5 4 8 7 9 11 12

Fit a regression line of y on x as best as you can. From your graph, obtain
the regression coefficient of y and x.

Sub-Topic:
Rank Correlation

(i) Coefficient of correlation: the coefficient of correlation is defined

as r = √ a a1 where r – the coefficient of correlation a and aa 1 are the
slopes of the regression line y on x and x on y respectively.

r can be considered as the geometric mean of a and a 1.

From previous discussions.

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x)(∑ y )
a=
n ∑ x 2−(∑ x )2

n ∑ xy−( ∑ x)(∑ y )
a1 = a=
n ∑ x 2−(∑ x )2
1
∴ a a =¿
n ∑ xy−(∑ y )(∑ x)
∴ r=
¿¿
This (r) above is usually called Pearson’s coefficient of correlation or
product moment correlation coefficient.

Example 2.

The following data are marks scored by 10 students out of a maximum of

10 marks for each subject.

Maths 3 6 4 6 4 7 5 5 4 7
PHY 4 6 5 7 4 7 6 5 5 8

Draw the scatter diagram and calculate the coefficient of correlation.

Solution

Let x represents Maths marks and y the Physics marks.

The correlation coefficient between x and y is given as:

n ∑ xy −(∑ y )(∑ x )
r=
¿¿

X Y x2 y2 xy
3 4 9 16 12
6 6 36 36 36
4 5 16 25 20
6 7 36 49 42
4 4 16 16 16
7 7 49 49 49
5 6 36 36 30
5 5 25 25 25
4 5 25 25 20
7 8 64 64 56
∑ x=¿ 52 ∑ y=¿57 ∑ x =¿ 277
2
∑ y =¿ 341
2
∑ xy=¿306

∑ xy=306 ∑ xy=52 ∑y = 57 ∑x2 = 277

∑y2 = 341

10 x 306−(52 x 57)
r=
¿¿
3060−2964
=
√2770−2704 √ 3410−3249
96
=
( 8.124 )(12.689)
 96
=
103.08
r = 0.931
y
The scatter Diagram
10
9
8 x
x
7 x x
x
6 x
x
5 x x
x xx
4 x
3 x
2
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Some characteristics of r are

(i) The value of r is same whichever way we label the data.

(ii) The value of r satisfies the inequality -1 ≤ r ≤ 1.
(iii) If r is close to +1, x and y are highly positively correlated. If r is
close to -1 then x and y are highly negatively correlated. When r
is close to O, then the correlation between x and y is very low,
when r = 0. Then there is no correlation at all.
(iv) The degree to which r is close to -1 or +1 determines how good a
predictor the least squares line is.

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient:

There are occasions that we are giving position of the variables without
necessarily awarding marks. There are some situations that there are no
marks but position. The opinion polls conducted on sensitive issue are
given position. This is called Ranking. If two corresponding sets of values
are ranked in such manner, the coefficient of rank correlation is given by
2
6∑d
i where d = difference between ranks of corresponding
R=1− 2
N (N −1)
values of x and y
n

∑ di=0
i=1

This formula is called Spearman’s formula.

Example 3: Two judges x and y ranked 10 constants in a singing

competition as follows.
Contestants Q B C D E F G H I J
Rank by X 8 3 9 2 7 10 4 6 1 5
Rank by Y 9 5 10 1 7 7 3 4 2 6
Do the judges differ from each other in ranking the contestants?

Solution

In order to answer, we need to calculate using Spearman’s rank

correlation coefficient.
2
6∑d
i
R=1− 2
N ( N −1)

X Y X-Y = di 2
d
i
8 9 -1 1
3 5 -2 4
9 10 1 1
2 1 0 1
7 7 3 0
10 7 1 9
4 3 2 1
6 4 -1 4
1 2 -1 1
5 6 -2 1
23

6 x 23 138
R=1− ¿ 1− ; R=1−0.1394
10(100−1) 990

Since R is high, we say that the judges to a reasonable extent in their

judgement or ranking agree.

EVALUATION

The following table shows the positions of ten students in Mathematics

and Further Maths tests.

Maths 10 1 9 5 3 7 4 7 6 2
F.Math 9 3 8 10 2 7 6 4 5 1
s

Calculate the coefficient of rank correlation.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Five students scored the following marks in physics and chemistry

during an end of year examination
 Physics 90 70 50 47 80
F.Maths 70 80 66 62 85

(a) Draw the scatter diagram (b) Calculate the coefficient of

correlation.
2. The differences in the ranks given by judges x and y are as follows: -
0.5, 1.5, 0. Calculate the Spearman’s correlation coefficient.
3. Calculate the coefficient of correlation to show the association
between the two sets of quiz marks using product moment formula.

Marks of 6 5 8 8 7 6 10 4 9 7
1st quiz
Marks of 8 7 7 10 5 8 10 6 8 6
2nd quiz

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Further Maths Project Book 2 exercise 20 page 360 Nos 1, 2, 11, 14 and
20.

Reading

Further Maths Project book 2 pages 352 to 364.

WEEK 8

TOPIC: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION AND APPROXIMATIONS

CONTENT:

i. Binomial approximations by Poisson distributions

ii. Normal distributions and Normal approximations
iii. Binomial approximations by Poisson distributions
iv. Binomial Distributions
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION AND APPROXIMATIONS

In our last discussion in sss2, we leant about concept of probability and

calculated probability and events.

We want to see how to find probabilities of different values of discrete

variables such as counts scores.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS: Certain natural occurrences have

characteristic random behaviors. When theoretical probability model or
distribution is built on their nature of randomness, we say such a model or
theoretical distribution is called a probability distribution.

Mathematically this is defined: When a random variable x can assume a

discrete set of values x 1, x 2, x 3. . . . x k with probability p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pk where
n

∑ p k =1 then we say that a probability function of x written as p(x ) is defined.

k =1

Remember the binomial expression, the binomial probability lings round the
binomial theorem. Consider a repeated and independent trial of an
experiment with two possible outcomes, one of the outcomes is called success
and the other failure. Let p be the probability of success then

q=1− p , is probability of failure. The interest is in number of successes not the

order they occur when n numbers of trials are made and x is numbers of
successes, then the binomial distribution is given by
( n)
x
B ( x ; n , p )=∑ p x q n−x
0

Where x=0 , 1 , 2, 3 , … , n

( n) n!
And x = x !(n−x )! when nand p are constant then the function B(x : n , p)
is discrete probability distribution with values as follow in the table.
X =x 0 1 2 ... n
() () ...
n n
P( X=x) q n n−1 n 2 n−2 p
pq p q
1 2
The successive values of P( X=x) can be seen to be the same as those to the
binomial expansion of( q + p )n. Thus ∑ p ( X −x )=( q + p )n=1

Example 1: Write out the values of a binomial distribution for a toss of 8 coins
at a time and let x be the number of heads that appear. Draw the histogram,
corresponding frequency polygon of this distribution and then determine the
probability distribution of x

Solution:
1 1
No. of trials, A=8, Let head be a success with probability, p= 2 ∧q=1− p= 2

(nx)
Bi ( x :n , p )=∑ p q
x n−x
; x=0 , 1 ,2 , … , n
0

( n)
x
¿ ∑ p x (1−P)n−x
0

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 2561
P ( no head )= ( X=0 )= 8
1
0 2
0 8

P ( 1head )=( X =1 )= 8(
1 2) (
( ) 2 256
1 1
)
1
¿
8 7

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 256
P ( 2 heads ) =( X=2 )= 8
1
2 2
2 28 6

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 256
P ( 3 heads )=( X=3 )= 8
1
3 2
3 56 5

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 256
P ( 4 heads ) =( X=4 )= 8
1
4 2
4 70 4

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 256
P ( 5 heads ) =( X=5 )= 8
1
5 2
5 56 3

( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 256
P ( 6 heads )=( X =6 ) = 8
1
6 2
6 28 2
P ( 7 heads )=( X =7 )= 8
( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 2568
1
7 2
7 1

P ( 8 heads )=( X =8 )= 8
( )( ) ( 12 ) ¿ 2561
1
8 2
8 0

X =x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P( X=x) 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
256 256 256 256 256 256 256 256 256

Type equation here .

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

SUB – TOPIC: POISSON DISTRIBUTION

Poisson distribution is defined as a discrete probability distribution that is

very suitable for random experiments.

x −λ
λ e
It is also be defined as P ( x ; λ )= , x=0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , …
x!

Where λ=np> 0 is a constant.

Poisson distribution provides us with a close approximation of the binomial
distribution for small values of x provided that P is small.

Example 2: Suppose 3 % of the items made by a shoe factory are

defective. Find the probability that there are: (i). two defective items (ii).
At least one defective item in a sample of 100 items

SOLUTION

The binomial distribution with n=100∧ p=0.03 applies

np=λ=3

Then,

x −λ
P ( X , λ )= λ e , x=0 , 1, 2 , …

2 −3
3 e
(i). P ( of getting 2 defective items )=P ( X =2 )=
2!

−3
9e
¿ =0.224
2

0 −3
3 e
(ii). P ( of getting 1 defective items )=P ( X ≥1 )=1−P ( X =0 )=1−
0!

−3
¿ 1−e =0.95

EVALUATION

1. Suppose 2% of the people on the average are colour blind. Find

the probability that:
a. 2 are colour blind.
b. at least one is colour blind in a sample of 100 people.

SUB – TOPIC: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The normal distribution consists of all continuous distribution in statistical

information.
Mathematically normal distribution is defined as:

2( )
−1 x−μ 2
σ
❑
f ( x )=1 /σ √ 2 π e

Where σ ∧μ are standard deviation and mean respectively and are greater
than zero while ¿ 2.718 . This function is certainly one of the most important
examples of a continuous probability distribution.

The graph of normal distribution is bell – like shape as shown below:

x
Normal distribution with σ fixed (σ =1)

All bell – liked curves are symmetrical about x=μ .

N ( μ , σ 2 )=f (x )

Standard normal curve

2
( x−μ)
Let y=
σ

Substitute in the equation:

( x−μ)
1
f ( x )=N ( μ , σ ) =
2
2 2σ
e
σ √2 x

We shall obtain
 2
y
1 −( 2 )
∅ ( y )= e
√2 π
This latter expression is the standard Normal distribution and mean ( μ )=0 . Variance ( σ 2 )=1.

Any raw score can be transforming to the standard form by defining a variable ℤ using the
x −μ
following formula Z= . The process is called standardization.
σ

STUDENT ACTIVITY: Mention five (5) properties of the Normal Distribution.

In all normal distribution function, the total area under a curve is 1.

For normal distribution curve, it is found that about:

1. 68% of the total area under the curve lies between μ−σ and μ+σ ;

68%

2. 95.5% of the total area under the curve lies between μ−2 σ μ μ+2 σ

95.5%

μ−2 σ μ μ+2 σ

3. 99.7% of the total area under the curve lies between μ−3 σ μ μ+3 σ

99.7%
 μ−3 σ μ μ+3 σ

Expressing the three category of the normal distribution in probability form, we have:

1. P ( μ−σ ≤ x ≤ μ−σ )=68 %=0.68

2. P ( μ−2 σ ≤ x ≤ μ−2 σ )=95.5 %=0.955
3. P ( μ−3 σ ≤ x ≤ μ−3 σ )=99.7 %=0.997

Example 3: A random variable x is normally distributed with mean 65 and standard

deviation 5. Find:

i. P(60 ≤ x ≤ 70)
ii. P(55 ≤ x ≤ 75)
iii. P(50 ≤ x ≤ 80)

SOLUTION:

μ=65 , σ=5 μ−σ=65−5=60∧μ+ σ=65+ 5=70

P ( μ−σ ≤ x ≤ μ−σ )=P ( 60 ≤ x ≤ 70 )=68 %=0.68

Class activity: Solve (ii) and (iii)

EVALUATION

0.2% of the corks produced by a machine were found to be defective. Find the probability
that 5 out of 1000 corks would be defective .

SJUB – TOPIC: BINOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS BY POISSON DISTRIBUTIONS

Repeated and independent random experiments are called Bernoulli trials if there are only
two possibilities for each experience and their probabilities remain unchanged throughout
the experiment. This means that, if A and Ac denote the success p and failure q respectively,
then P ( A ) + P ( A c )=1 implies p+q=1

A binomial distribution is the one that satisfies the conditions of Bernoulli trials.

If a distribution is binomial b (x ; n , p) its mean. μ and variance σ 2 are given by μ=np called
mean or expectation σ 2=npq .

Example
Find the expected number of males in a random sample of 100 families. Find also its
1
standard deviation. (Take p ( mal e )=P ( female )= .
2

SOLUTION:

1
Expected No. of families = mean = np=100 × =50
2

2 1 1
Variance σ =npq=100 × × =25.
2 2

Standard deviation ¿ √ σ 2= √ 25=5.

Example

Find the probability Of getting exactly 3 heads in 5 tosses of a fair coin.

Solution:

1
Probability of getting 3 heads in 5 tosses in Binomial distribution with p=q=
2

P ( 3 H )=5 C3 ¿

EVALUTION

1. Find the expansion of ¿ using binomial principle.

2. Find the probability that in a family of five children there will be
a. At least a girl
b. At least a boy and a girl
c. At most 2 girls

Assume the probability of boy is equal to probability of girls is half.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Find the mean and variance of the following distribution

x 12 16 20 24 28
P(x ) 1 1 1 1 1
16 4 8 4 16
2. Find the probability that in tossing a fair coin 5 times
a. 3 heads appear
b. At most 2 heads appear
3. In a standard normal curve shown, find the value of Z such that the shaded area
under the curve is 5%of the total area.

4. The mean grade on a a final examination was 64 and the standard

deviation was 8. The top 12% of the students are to receive first
class. What is the minimum score a student must get in order to
qualify for a first class, correct to the nearest whole number?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Further Mathematics Project Book 3, page, exercise 12
questions 1 – 6, 14 and 15.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Further Mathematics Project Book 3, page 182 – 196.