#1 CELLS including nutrients and

waste materials
Cell - if walay ATP, dili mo open or
- the basic unit structure close (ang Mitochondria
- fundamental unit of life mag give ug ATP)
- undergoes specialization
Composed of several Fundamental 2. Cell Nucleus
Components: - an organelle that houses
1. Cell Membrane DNA
2. Nucleus - located in the center of
3. Ribosome eukaryotic cells
4. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Function: to store and
5. Golgi Apparatus safeguard genetic
6. Mitochondria information, controlling gene
7. Chloroplasts expression and DNA
8. Lysosome and Peroxisome replication
9. Centriole - contains Nucleolus, which is
10. Microtubules involved in Ribosome
Synthesis
Types of Cell:
1. Prokaryotic ★ DNA
- lack of defined nucleus - control center of the cell kay
- a single-cell organism whose naa man sa sulod sa
cell lacks a nucleus and Nucleus
other membrane-bound ★ Apoptosis (Cell Death)
organelles - mag mitosis para mailisan
2. Eukaryotic ang DNA/cell nga mamatay,
- any cell or organism that ang katapad na cell ang
possesses a clearly defined mag mitosis
nucleus
- the eukaryotic cell has a 3. Cytoplasm
nuclear membrane that - gel-like matrix containing
surrounds the nucleus, in water, salts, proteins, and
which the well-defined other molecules
chromosomes are located - Function: helps the cell to
- Eukaryotic cells also contain look that way, biochemical
organelles reactions, energy production,
- have a defined nucleus and substance transport

Structure and Basic Functions Protein Synthesis

these components work together to building and repairing cellular structures,
maintain cellular homeostasis and perform regulating biological processes, and
essential life activities: expressing specific characteristics of each
organism
1. Cell Membrane
- surrounds the cell 1. Ribosome
- acts like a gate, selective - the reader of the DNA
barrier between the interior (mRNA) (maka make
and the exterior polypeptide)
- Function: regulating
passages of substances,
 - located sa Cytoplasm and - Function: production of
the Rough Endoplasmic oxygen
Reticulum
Cellular Digestion
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum breaking down molecules and unwanted
- network of interconnected materials
membranes that extends
from the nuclear membrane 1. Lysosomes
to the cell membrane - siya mag collect sa waste
- Function: transport, - contain digestive enzymes
processing, and distribution that breaks down molecules
of proteins and lipids and unwanted materials
- protein folding happens here - Function: facilitates cellular
(folded protein = useful) digestion, disposing of waste
- gives signals nga mamatay
2 Main Types of E.R na ang cell
● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- specializes in lipid synthesis, 2. Peroxisomes
carbohydrate metabolism, - contains enzymes that
and detoxification degrade hydrogen peroxides
- doesn’t have Ribosome thats and toxic compounds therby
why smooth protecting the cells from
● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum oxidative damage
- does have Ribosome - Function: regulates lipid
- involved in the synthesis and metabolism and overall
modification of proteins homeostasis
- tigkuha sa harmful na cell
3. Golgi Apparatus
- Function: works like a ★ Protein Channel
factory, processing and - the process of sending
packaging of proteins and signals to other cells
lipids from the E.R
- maintains the cell’s internal Support and Movement
balance and facilitates maintaining cellular shape
communication outside
1. Cytoskeleton
Energy Supply - contains protein filaments
1. Mitochondria - murag tubes nga naa sa
- site of ATP (energy) ilawm or tunga nag support
production sa Cell Membrane
- present in Eukaryotic, - Functions: provides support
Animal, and Plant cell and enables movement in
- Function: production of ATP Eukaryotic cells, regulates
through cellular respiration cellular shape

2. Chloroplasts 2. Flagella and Cilia

- carry out Photosynthesis, - specialized structures for
converting solar energy into movement
chemical energy - Function: enables locomotion
in liquid environment
Cillia II. Translation
- shorter and create coordinated flow (happens in the Cytoplasm - mRNA)
- the reason why egg cells move a. Initiation
- found in the Fallopian Tube - happens in the Ribosome - Rough
- naay buhok and it’s called Ciliated Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Epithelial Cell - Exons codes for protein, while
Flagella Introns does not code for protein
- only ang sperm naa ani, the tail of Start Codon:
the sperm AUG
- need ug ATP para sa movement Stop Codon:
UGA / UAG / UAA
Storage and Transport b. Elongation
manage nutrients, eliminates waste, and - tRNA - Polypeptide Chain na ang
regulate metabolic processes naa
c. Termination
1. Vacuoles - stop codon
- Function: store nutrients,
ions, water, and waste
materials, serves as defense — DNA/mRNA/tRNA —
mechanism against ★ DNA has 2 strands: 5’ - 3’ and 3’ - 5’
predators by containing ★ mRNA will always refer to 3’ - 5’
toxins Where to find/base for the amino acid?
- sa mRNA mag base
- check the codon first, then refer to
2. Vesicles and Endosomes the reference table
- Vesicles Function: transports Questions:
materials from the 1. What ang kauban sa nucleotide?
Endoplasmic Reticulum to - pentose sugar & phosphate
the Golgi Apparatus to other group
destinations 2. What cell part does Transcription
- Endosomes Function: happen?
capture and distribute - nucleus
materials for degradation, 3. Why sa nucleus man ma happen
recycling, or their and dili sa RNA?
incorporation into metabolic - because nucleus contains
pathways DNA
4. What do you call the area in the
Protein Synthesis DNA that is where the RNA
2 Process: polymerase starts and ends?
I. Transcription - Promoter (starts) and
(happens in the DNA - Nucleus) Terminator (ends)
a. Initiation 5. In Translation, in what strand is the
- starts at the Promoter - RNA point of decoding in the amino
Polymerase acid?
b. Elongation - mRNA
- formation of mRNA 6. In what part of the cell does the
c. Termination reading of the mRNA happen?
- ends in the Terminator - in Cytoplasm, specifically
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
 7. What is the function of the Golgi animals were also made of
Apparatus? cells.
- creates the Polypeptide 6. Robert Remack
Chain - discovered the 3rd postulate
8. What cell organelle gives out ATP? of the cell theory.
- Mitochondria - proved that the origin of
cells was by the division of
#2 CELL THEORY pre-existing cells based on
his studies.
Postulates:
1. All organisms are composed of one
or more cells. — Spontaneous Generation —
2. Cell is the Basic Unit of Structure
and Organization in organisms. 1. Aristotle
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. - “Life can arise from
(could only come from living nonliving matter.”
organisms) - fishes came from water
- frogs came from muds
Scientists Involved: - mice come from wheat
1. Zacharias Jansen 2. John Baptista van Helmont
- said to have come up with - proposed that mice could
the first compound arise from rags and wheat
microscope. kernels left in an open
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek container for 3 weeks.
- made his own microscope 3. Francesco Redi
that looked like a - performed an experiment in
sunglasses/in the size of a 1668 that refuted the idea of
sunglasses lens. maggots (the larvae of flies)
- he went to town to look at to spontaneously generate
stuff using his own on meat left out in the open
microscope and when he air.
looked at his teeth, he
discovered “animalcules” or
bacterias in the dental
scrapers of his teeth.
3. Robert Hooke
- created the term “The Cell”
- he was looking at a piece of
cork under his microscope,
and the little chambers he
saw reminded him of cells or
the monk’s room in their 4. John Needham
monasteries. - he did an experiment of
4. Matthias Schleiden briefly boiling a broth
- a botanist that noticed that infused with plant or animal
every plant he looked at was matter hoping it would kill
made of cells. all pre-existing microbes— he
5. Theodore Schwann then sealed the flask. after a
- a scientist that studied few days, the broth had
animals and also arrived at become cloudy and a single
the conclusion that all
 drop contained numerous #3 STEM CELLS
microscopic creatures. - every stem cells changes its name
- he thought that microbes because it loses its potency (how
would spontaneously strong), tika lesser ang capability
generate - Stem cells are used to cure different
organ failure

3 Different Stem Cells:

1. Totipotent
- most potent
- can become any organ
- can regenerate into new
healthy organ cells
5. Lazzaro Spallanzani ★ why grabe ug capability/why
- to contradict Needham’s pinaka potent?
experiment, broth in sealed - because in this stage, cells become
jars and unsealed jars was specialized
infused with plant & animal - Fertilized Egg → Zygote
matter (tika daghan) → Embryo 4
Cell stage → Morula,,,, wala
pa ka decide unsa na organ
sila mahimo
- found in Blastocyst

2. Pluripotent
- here, the cells will now
choose to what organ it will
become
- heated but sealed flask ● Ectoderm (skin & nervous system)
remained clear, without any ● Mesoderm (bone, muscles, fat,
signs of spontaneous growth, cartilage)
unless the flasks were ● Endoderm (digest tract, lungs,
subsequently opened to the pancreas)
air
6. Louis Pasteur 3. Multipotent
- made a series of flasks with - organ cell
long, twisted necks
(swan-neck flasks), in which
he boiled broth to sterilize it. Mesoderm - blood cell
- airborne microorganisms ➔ Multipotent: Hematopoietic stem
would get caught in the cell (hema means blood)
twists and bends of the ➔ Lineage Committed:
flask’s necks - Red Blood Cell
- White Blood Cell (Basophil,
Eosinophil, Neutrophil,
Lymphocyte, Monocyte)

(1) Red Blood Cell

- called “Erythrocytes”
- Function: oxygen transport
 -Features: - releases Superoxides that have the
enucleated (no Nucleus) ability to kill many bacterias
has Biconcave shape - Neutrophil gives signal to
no Mitochondria Lymphocyte so that Lymphocyte
circulates for an average of can put a marker on the bacterias
120 days (3-4 months) in which the Neutrophil will eat/kill
- 1 RBC contains 250 million
Hemoglobin molecules, [2.4] Lymphocyte (agranulocyte)
1 Hemoglobin = 4 oxygen - creates B cell & T cell
molecules - thats why duha kay naa man
- RBC production takes place different ways of coming ang
in the Bone Marrow, under pathogens, they either hide or just
the control of EPO Hormone enter as is
★ why wala Mitochondria? - tig make sa Antibody that kills the
- so that oxygen is not utilized pathogens
by RBC and all the oxygen is ● B-Cell
transported to target areas - ma recognize sa B cell ang mga
★ ma trigger gani ang usa ka cell sa pathogens nga mo sud as is
kidney nga very sensitive kay mag - found in Bone Marrow
release ug EPO Hormone ang body ● T-Cell
and mag tell na mag get ug RBC - mo recognize sa pathogens na mo
sud sa other cells and mo hide
(2) White Blood Cell - found in Thymus
- called “Leukocytes” - ang antigen kay naay chance na
- Function: fight infection mo detach, ang buhaton sa cell nga
- 5 Main Types: Basophil, gi taguan sa pathogen kay naay
Eosinophil, Neutrophil, , MHC Molecule, ang antigen kay mo
Lymphocyte, Monocyte bind man and ipagawas na sa
molecule ang antigen para tawagon
[2.1] Basophil (granulocyte) ang T-cell and T-cell will respond
- least frequent type of WBC and mark the cell as infected
- contains Histamine that dilates
blood vessels to improve blood flow ★ How to make Antibody?
and heal the affected area - bacterias have antigens and
➔ when wounded, Histamine epitope in them, these antigens are
will dilate the blood so that on the surface of the pathogens. to
ang uban WBC maka adto fight bacterias, our body tries to
sa site of injury and maka match the epitope present in the
fight sa infections antigen, if the shape is recognize,
that is when the bacteria is
[2.2] Eosinophil (granulocyte) identified
- parasites and worms are the main - dapat matching ang antibody sa
pathogens Eosinophil acts upon shape sa surface sa bacterias para
- tiny cells that fights parasites ma recognize and put na ug marker
together and Neutrophil comes and eat the
bacterias
[2.3] Neutrophil (granulocyte)
- are phagocytic WBC that engulfs [2.5] Monocytes (agranulocyte)
pathogens (high temperature are - engulfs bacterias (phagocytosis)
not good for them) - biggest type of WBC
 - acts as Macrophage (a cell with a
role of phagocytosing foreign ● Node of Ranvier
antigens) - passageway of ions, positive
charged ions causes
chemical signaling
Ectoderm - Nervous System
➔ Multipotent: Neural Stem Cell ★ another way to increase
➔ Lineage Committed: propagation velocity is to decrease
- Neuron the membrane capacitance, can be
- Oligodendrocyte achieved by coating Axons with a
- Astrocyte thick Sheath

(3) Astrocyte
- maintains an appropriate
chemical environment for
neuronal signaling
- a blood vessel made up of
Endothelial Cell, in between
this is Tight Junction
- Astrocyte releases growth
factor na maka make
daghan sa Tight Junction
- if there are many Tight
(1) Neuron Junctions, it is not
- nerve cells that sends permeable, meaning the
messages all over the body Neuron is protected
to allow us to do stuff ● Tight Junction
- chooses what goes in and
(2) Oligodendrocyte what goes out of the brain
- responsible for maintenance
and generation of Myelin
Sheath Endoderm - Pancreas
- wraps around Axon so that ➔ Multipotent: Mesenchymal Stem
the message can be passed Cell
faster ➔ Lineage Committed:
- provides fats or lipid - Connective Tissue
between one Neuron to - Liver
another - Fat
● Myelin Sheath - Pancreas
- important because it
prevents negative charges to (1) Pancreas
enter - production of Glucagon and
- prevents reaction of positive Insulin
and negative charges - sits behind the stomach
- without Myelin Sheath, - creates natural juices (Water
negative and positive + Sodium Bicarbonate +
charges will attract each Digestive Enzymes) to break
other which would slow down down bones
the passing of information
 - Cell of Pancreas: ● Root Hair
Islet Of Langerhans - helps roots in water
(subdivide into 4 groups) absorption
Alfa Cell - glucagon ● Guard Cell
Beta Cell - insulin - tig close/open
Delta Cell - somatostatin - regulates water loss and gas
Epsilon - ghrelin exchange

● Glucagon 2. Vascular Tissue

- found in the Liver - where Xylem and Phloem come
- increases sugar level from in their 1st year
● Insulin - not all plants has Vascular Tissue
- decreases sugar level ● Xylem
- passageway of water
● Sodium Bicarbonate - roots → stem → leaves
- balances and neutralize ● Phloem
acidity - passageway of food and
● Digestive Enzyme glucose
- lipase (fat), protein Amylase - leaves → stem → roots
(carbohydrate), protease
(protein) 3. Ground Tissue
- made up of cells whose cell walls
★ 1 Hexagon = 1 glucose molecule differ in thickness
★ If excess ang glucose kay sa liver - between Dermal and Vascular
istore Tissue
★ What ang mag signal sa liver na - has specialized cells that functions
need mag release ug glucose? as storage, support, and
- Glucagon short-distance transport
● Parenchyma
- thin cell wall because its
responsibility is to aid
#4 PLANT STEM CELLS photosynthesis
Meristem - stem cells for Plants - storage of food
2 Types: ● Collenchyma
1. Apical Meristem - thick cell wall
- promote plant growth - support structure of the
2. Lateral Meristem plant
- secondary growth, width growth
● Sclerenchyma
- thick cell wall
Apical Meristem
- protection of the plant
- responsible for plant’s primary
growth
3 Types of Tissues:
Lateral Meristem
1. Dermal Tissue - skin
- plant’s secondary growth
- made up of Epidermal Cells
- increase in the girth/thickness of
- outer covering of the plants
stems to allow the movement of
- prevents water loss
fluid and support of the growing
- ex: Root Hair & Guard Cells of
plant
Stomata, they keep the water in
tact
2 Types: ★ for every Chromosome, there are 2
1. Vascular Cambium version of the mother’s and the
- related sa vascular tissue father’s
- in between Xylem and Phloem ★ When mitosis occurs, a copy of the
- responsible for giving new sets of chromosomes of the father's and
Xylem and Phloem after the two die mother's versions will be made, and
when it reaches 2 years of age the copy will go to the new cell, so
the new cell will have a copy of
both the mother's and the father's
★ Where gikan ang copy sa
2. Cork Cambium chromosome?
- responsible for secondary growth - ang cell sa mother naay 1
that replaces the epidermis in roots chromosome, 1 also sa sperm
and stems sa father, combine and the
- produces cork cells of a plant, which child will have 2
are part of the plant’s bark (outer chromosomes
layer)
Bark of a Tree: Cork, Cork Cambium, What triggers the cell to undergo Mitosis?
Secondary Phloem Things to Consider:
1. Events Outside the Cell
- Death of a nearby cell (go
signal)
#5 CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT - High level of hormones (go
★ It’s the cell itself that will check signal)
itself thus a cell needs to be healthy - Crowding cells (stop signal)
to know if it’s good for Mitosis or - Cell size (go signal)
should it stop
2. Events Inside the Cell
Different Structures of the DNA: - If the cell is not healthy yet
● Chromatin - a complex of DNA and for Mitosis, negative
proteins. DNA is wrapped around regulation proteins will be
Histone proteins (this protein produced/Stop signal:
provides structural support of the Retinoblastoma
Chromosomes) P53
● Chromosome - condensed form of P21
DNA/arranged form - If the cell is healthy for
Mitosis, positive regulation
● Chromatids - one half of a
proteins will be produced/Go
duplicated chromosome
signal:
Protein-Cyclins
★ If walay Mitosis, lose form
Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
(Chromatin) ra ang DNA
★ 46 Chromosome sa Humans, with 23
Cell Cycle and the Checkpoints:
pairs
★ magtika increase ang number of ● G1 - Cell Growth
Chromosome, magtika decrease ang - checks whether the cell is big
iya size enough and if it has made
★ Unhealthy cell cannot detect that it enough proteins, if so, it will
is Mitosing undergo protein synthesis. If
★ for easy copying, iform into not big or haven’t went
Chromosome/iarrange ang DNA protein synthesis, it will go to
 a resting period, G0 (resting
period)
● S - DNA Synthesis
- checks if DNA has been
replicated correctly

● G2 - rechecks the cells

- do the same thing that the S
checkpoint does
● M - Mitosis 4. Telophase
- forms into 2 cells
Mitosis - Chromosome 1 copy naa sa
- makes identical cells other cell and the other
- division of cells Chromosome 1 on the other
cell
4 Phase Stage: - the nucleus will come back
1. Prophase and the DNA will start to
- the nucleus will slowly break get tangled back
apart
- Centriole has Spindle Fibre
attached to it
- Chromatids has a middle
portion called Centromere

Meiosis
- make gametes
- aim is genetic variation and
production of Haploid cells (a cell
that contains a single set of
2. Metaphase Chromosomes)
- they meet at the middle - 23 ka sperm cell and 23 ka egg cell,
- no nucleus na 46 in total
- the Spindle Fibre will attach - Only sperm and egg cells will go
to the centromere Meiosis
Part 1
1. Prophase 1
- for every Chromosome
number there is a copy of
the mother and father
- the same Chromosome
number will be beside each
other and they will overlap
each other, the process of
3. Anaphase
overlapping is called
- away from each other
Synapsis
 - Homologous Chromosome Part 2
are Chromosomes that have 1. Prophase 2
the same number - no crossing over/synapsis
- It is called a Tetrad if two that will occur because the
pairs of Homologous Chromosomes next to each
Chromosomes are next to other does not have the
each other (ang butterfly same number
form) - there are 2 cells already
- parts that will overlap with
each other will exchange
parts and that is called
Crossing-Over
(recombination)
- the Nucleus will disintegrate
2. Metaphase 2
2. Metaphase 1 - meet at the middle
- the Tetrads, attached to the
Spindle Fibers, will line up or
meet at the middle

3. Anaphase 2
- break apart/away from each
other
- ma break na ang butterfly
looking chromosome so one
3. Anaphase 1 nalang sya but naa na syay
- Genetic variation happens genetic variation (shades)
- the cell in this stage has 46
Chromosomes so it will
divide again (Prophase 2
happens)

4. Telophase 2
- there will be 4 cells na, each
with half the number of
Chromosomes of the parent
cell
- 4 ka sperm sa lalake and 1
4. Telophase 1 ra sa babae kay 1 raman
- 2 cells formed ang mo mature and ang
other 3 kay mahimo ug
polar body
 - partial or complete loss of 2nd sex
Chromosome among females, either
#5 CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS the egg does not have a
chromosome or the sperm
1. Cri-Du-Chat Syndrome Diagnosis:
- french term that means “Cry - early loss of ovarian function
of the Cat” because when (problem sa hormone), can affect
kids cry they sound like cats growth and sexual development
- Chromosome 5 - pwede dili na sya maka menstruate,
Cause: nag lisud ug ovulate also
- deletion of the short arm in - diagnosed during the few months of
Chromosome 5 being a child because the hands will
★ Short arm is the upper part of the swell
Chromosome Symptoms:
- a break in the DNA - shorter than her usual ka age
- probably because the Chromosome - wide neck
was not properly replicated/copied - swelling of hand and feet (ma see
during the S stage of Meiosis during baby stage)
(problem is sperm or egg cell) - broad chest
Diagnosis: - underactive thyroid gland
- The people with this disorder are - early loss of ovarian cycle
diagnosed before they reach the Treatment:
age of two - those who have this disorder will
- If they get older, the disorder will undergo Hormone Replacement
not be obvious anymore because Therapy, they will be given a
kids will be able to control their hormone to produce more
cries na hormones, this will only help the
Symptoms: syndrome and not the Chromosome
- abnormality of development of
larynx (partial deletion of short 3. Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
arm) (the reason of their cat-like - sobra ug Chromosome 23, 3
cries) na sya kabook
- small at birth Cause:
- respiratory problems - when Chromosomes fails to
- small head separate during Meiosis
Treatment: Diagnosis:
- there is no treatment because it is a - small percentages are diagnosed
genetic problem but children can before birth through fetal cell
undergo therapy to speak better drawn from amniotic fluid
- before the gets out from the
2. Turner Syndrome mother’s womb, they will test first to
- a condition that affects only what the possible disorder of the
females, results when one of child, they will take fluid (amniotic
the X chromosomes (sex fluid) from the cervix to see if the
chromosomes) is missing or copy of the chromosomes is correct
partially missing - can be know before birth
- Chromosome 23 - physical examination could be done
Cause: as some of the symptoms are
- X0 because Chromosome should physically observable
have a pair and here kay wala stay - chromosome analysis through blood
pair sampling to check the chromosome
Symptoms: ★ Every Chromosome Disorder bsag
- testicles remain small obvious kay mag get jd ug sample
- Testosterone are lower which affects blood regardless of how obvious it is
male sexual development
- Wide hips 6. William Syndrome
- low growth/sparse body hair - something wrong with
- development of breast tissue Chromosome 7
- experience learning disability and Cause:
difficulty in socializing - deletion of specific region of
Treatment: chromosome, specifically a segment
- testosterone replacement therapy of long arm, contains 26-28 genes
(development of penis size), dili ma - Occurs in the egg or sperm
change ang infertility though development
- educational and psychological
counseling Diagnose:
- obvious sa physical characteristics
4. Jacob Syndrome (XYY) - confirms diagnosis through FISH
- dili masabtan and present (fluorescent in situ hybridization),
among male pasigaan through chemical to see if
- ma know ra if maglisud ug putol ang either short arm or long
anak arm
Diagnose: Symptoms:
- Karyotyping can be done to obtain - Small upturned nose
sample of DNA to check the - small chin
chromosome - wide mouth
Symptoms: - puffy eyes
- majority of the males who have this - suffer from cardiovascular problems
disorder appear to be normal - developmental delay
- physical symptoms are having tall Treatment:
structure and pimples - no cure
- usually males are diagnosed when - need to monitor because of their
they get tested for infertility cardiovascular problem
- Acne
- Aggression 7. Down Syndrome
- Tall structure Cause:
- superior muscle strength - caused by trisomy of Chromosome
21 or extra copy of Chromosome 21
5. Triple X Syndrome (XXX) - when a pair of chromosomes fails to
- A female has 3 X separate during gamete formation
chromosomes Diagnose:
Diagnose: - diagnosis could be done through
- blood sample ang way to check chorionic villus which take sample
Symptoms: from the placenta and amniotic
- normal in appearance fluid respectively to examine the
- lower than average language skills chromosome of the baby
- poor memory for recent events - could also be diagnosed after birth
- Web of skin through distinctive facial features
- poor breast development Symptoms:
- under-developed ovaries - intellectual disability and difficulty
in learning how to walk, talk, and
take care of themselves
- small broad nose
- abnormally shaped ears
- upward slanting eyes