Chapter one Aquatic ecosystem

Chemical reactions & their effect on water quality

1-Water is not just a transparent liquid, it is a medium in which
many chemical compounds may react, affecting the quality of water
and the health of living organisms that depend on it..
2-Water can dissolve many chemicals and can exist in all three
states of matter - solid, liquid, and gaseous states –
3-Water is essential to the continuation of life on Earth. Water
passes from the environment to inside the living cell carrying the
substances needed to produce energy (ATP) , as well as excreting
waste products to outside.

The hydrosphere of the planet Earth:

1- The hydrosphere distinguishes Earth from other planets in the solar
system.
2- About 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water
3- About 97% of this water is found in the oceans, seas, and salt lakes
as salt water. The fresh water and is found in rivers, freshwater lakes
and groundwater represents approximately 1%. And the reminder part Ratio of the water
represents the frozen water in polar regions, mountain peaks and
envelope to land
glaciers. (cryosphere )
Egypt is characterized by its diverse aquatic environments, which include the Nile River,
the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba, the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and many salt and freshwater
lakes.
Water Cycle ( hydrological Closed cycle)
1-Water is constantly moving from one place to another in many different
. The water cycle as a system is capable of
changing the Earth's surface physically,
chemically, and biologically.

2-The water cycle in nature mainly includes

the process of evaporation, which share
mainly in the formation of clouds and rain or
snowfall. In addition to other biological
processes such as transpiration in plants,
respiration in plants and animals, and water
leakage through the pores of soil and rocks
to form groundwater.

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Note : Water vapour in clouds may react chemically with compounds in the air, forming acids
that fall as acid rain, which decomposes rocks.

Chemical structure of water:

1-Water is composed of the two elements hydrogen and oxygen, in

the ratio of 2: 1 by volume, respectively.
2-Oxygen represents 88.89% of the mass of the water molecule and
hydrogen represents 11.11%.
3-The two hydrogen atoms are connected to the oxygen atom by
two covalent bonds with an angle of about 104.5° between them.

Chemical properties of water:

Water does not exist on Earth in a pure form as it contains many
ions and chemicals that interact with it in different ways. Here are
three of the main properties of water:

1- Water polarity: The oxygen atom has higher

electronegativity than the hydrogen atom, so oxygen attract
electrons forming a partial negative charge on the oxygen
atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom,
The polarity of water molecules causes them to bond with other water molecules or
polar molecules of other substances to form hydrogen bonds, which gives water the
ability to dissolve many salts
and break them down into
hydrated ions.
Example: Dissolving sodium
chloride salt in water

The presence of hydrogen bonds with each other is reason

why pure water has a higher boiling point of 100°C at normal

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atmospheric pressure than compounds of similar structure, such as hydrogen sulphide, which
boils at -61°C.
2-Hydrolysis (hydration): leads to acidity or alkalinity
A small percentage of water molecules exist as hydrogen ions (H⁺Acid) and hydroxyl ions (OH-
Base).
1-When table salt (NaCl) is added to water, it dissociates into sodium ion (Na⁺) and chloride
ion (Cl-) making the solution neutral because the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) is equal to
the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

2-In the case of sodium bicarbonate salt (NaHCO3), hydrolysis of the salt leads to a decrease in the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-),
making the salt solution basic.

3-The opposite happens when ammonium chloride salt (NH4Cl) dissolves in water, it hydrolyses
and causes a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide ions and an increase in the concentration
of hydrogen ions, making the salt solution acidic.
3- Acid-base balance (equilibrium)
a)If the concentration of H⁺ increases so it is acidic ( the
pH value is less than 7)
b)if the concentration of OH- increases, it becomes basic
and the pH value is greater than 7
c)if the concentration of the two ions is equal, the water is
neutral and the pH value is equal to 7.
PH value: It is the measure of the acidity or basicity of
liquids or solutions. The pH value of pure water is about 7,
which is considered neutral.

The pH value of water from different sources:

1- Seawater: from 7.5 to 8.4, depending on the region in which the sea is located and the
environmental factors surrounding it.
2- Fresh water (rivers and lakes): from 6.5 to 8.5
3- Distilled water: around 7, because it is free of most of the impurities and ions that affect the
acidity or alkalinity

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4- Groundwater: The pH of groundwater differs (either neutral or alkaline) from one region to
another depending on the rock structure of the area (exposure to salts of certain rocks such as
calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.
5- The pH of the clouds is generally slightly acidic (4.5 to 5) due to the presence of carbon dioxide
and other acidic gases dissolved in the rain droplets
For Reading only
To minimize the negative impacts on water quality and on the health of living organisms
because of hydrolysis of salts and its effects on water, it is important to closely monitor
salinity levels as well as the changes in ionic structure of natural water bodies.
Proper waste disposal minimizes the addition of harmful salts to water bodies and maintains
water quality for wildlife habitats and human consumption.

Lesson Two : physical properties of water and their

role in the distribution of living organisms
Water has unique physical properties that distinguish it from other fluids (liquids and gases), such as
the decrease in its density when it reaches the freezing point and the high value of its specific heat,
which affect many natural phenomena, and the distribution of living organisms in different
environments.

Density : mass per unit volume of matter at a given

temperature. ( depends on mass of molecules and distance between
them)
2-denisty of pure water at 4 C is 1 gm/cm3 (1000 kg / m3 )
The ratio between the density of a any substance and pure water at
the same temperature is known as the relative density ( measured by hydrometer )
which is a sealed hollow glass reservoir with a wider
bottom containing lead (or mercury) , balls for vertical
stabilization and connected to a long, small-diameter
glass stem that is graduated in units of density so that the
lower scale indicates the highest density

factors affect Water density and water

currents in the oceans:
1)The pressure increases with increasing depth, (the
water molecules get closer together so the density of the water increases
2)The amount of dissolved salt (salinity) in the water increase mass so increase density

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 Note : The normal salinity of ocean water is 35 grams per liter of water (two teaspoons per cup
of water).

3)The temperature of the water : (The lower the temperature of water (down to 4°C), the
closer the molecules are to each other, so it increase the density ( by dec volume )
The differences in water density causes water currents in oceans ( carry heat and salt from
the tropics to the poles) (carry nutrients from the deep ocean to the surface) and fresh
water from rivers or
melting snow to different
places

Density of water in Polar Regions

The density of water changes as its temperature changes, generally the volume of a liquid
increases as the temperature increases and the volume of a
liquid decreases as the temperature decreases.
Water is an exception to this rule.
1-The highest value of water is (1000 kg/ m3) at 4°C.
2-above 4°C, Water evaporate & expands (volume
increase ) so its density decreases.
3-Below 4 C , the water expands (volume increase ) so
density decrease
When the air temperature is between 4°C and 0°C, the
surface water of the lake expands, becoming ice which

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is less dense than the water below it. So the ice remains on the surface as the density of the
ice is less than the density of the water while the water remains near the bottom at 4oC. to
help fish and other marine life to survive
This helps to understand why a lake in Polar Regions starts to freeze at the surface
rather than at the bottom.

Lesson 3 : Oxygen & carbon

dioxide in the aquatic
Environment
Gas exchange & respiration:( Glucose + O2 produce Energy (ATP) + Co2 + H2O)
1-Cellular respiration is a vital process breaks down the bonds in food (glucose) to obtain
stored energy ( For respiration – activity – growth – reproduction –swimming )

2-Unicellular organisms, such as amoeba obtain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide through
the cell membrane by diffusion. ‫اَحطار‬

3-The main source of oxygen in water is atmospheric air + phytoplankton, algae, and
aquatic plants from photosynthesis.
In seas and oceans, more oxygen dissolves in water as a result of waves and water
currents in the ocean, which increase the rate of gas exchange between the atmosphere
and water.

Solubility of the two gases O2 and CO2 in water

The graph shows the relationship between the solubility of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in fresh water at different
temperatures under normal atmospheric composition
Oxygen Gas Carbon
dioxide gas
500 times higher in atmosphere
But 50 times less soluble in
water
The effect of increasing the The effect of increased
percentage of dissolved CO2 in water on
oxygen in water aquatic organisms:
1-(improving) of respiration
negative effects on
Increasing the amount of
aquatic organisms
oxygen in water improves their
1. Acidification: When

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ability to breathe CO2 levels are high
leads to an increase in
2-Improved metabolism and carbonic acid (decrease
support the metabolism of PH of water ). Which is
aquatic organisms and improve harmful to many species
growth. of aquatic organisms,
3. Increased activity of especially those in
aquatic organisms to be more sensitive life stages such
active in swimming, hunting, as the egg and larval
and reproduction. stages.
4. Maintain balance of the 2. Weak respiration:
ecosystem by supporting (decrease the amount of
diverse populations of fish, dissolved oxygen in the
invertebrates, and plants. water necessary for
aquatic organisms to
breathe.
3. Reduced
calcification: Many
marine organisms such
as corals, mollusks, and
some species of plankton
depend on calcium
carbonate to form their
shells or skeletons.
Increased CO2 converts
it into calcium
bicarbonate, which
dissolves in water,
disrupting the ability of
these organisms to build
or maintain their
skeletons.
The effect of CO2
deficiency in water on
aquatic organisms:
1. decrease
photosynthesis: for
Aquatic plants and algae
which affect the overall
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 productivity of the
ecosystem.
2. Effects on food
chains: A change in the
level of CO2 in the water
can affect productive
organisms such as
phytoplankton and algae,
thereby affecting
organisms at higher
levels of the food chain.
3. Disruption of pH
balance: Low
concentrations of CO2
may lead to an increase
in the pH of water,
negatively affecting
sensitive species that are
adapted to a certain pH
range

The solubility of the two gases in salty ocean water is about 20-30% lower than their
solubility in fresh water.
In general, the solubility of the two gases decreases at higher temperatures. As the
temperature increases, the percentage of CO2 dissolved in water decreases, but at a greater
rate than the percentage of oxygen in water.

1-4 Biological adaptations of L.O in the aquatic environment ‫انحكيف‬

A)Physiological (functional) adaptation: ( ( ‫جعذيم أ جطٕير في ٔظيفّ ععٕ يٍ اععاء اندسى‬
Adaptations or modifications in the way they perform their biological/vital functions.
For example :
)To adapt to the high-water pressure at great deep-sea fish (Electric Eel) have strong and
depths durable arteries and veins that can
withstand the high pressure.
Note : deep-ocean fish have special abilities
to regulate respiration under the state of
oxygen deficiency. and adjust their blood
pressure to equalize the external pressure.

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oxygen levels are extremely low Electric Eel have developed very large gills
with very fine capillaries that maximize the
efficiency of extracting the little oxygen
found in water.
In addition, they can slow down their
metabolism to minimize their oxygen needs
Electric Eel

Osmosis (Movement of H2O from dilute solution to concentrated solution through semi
permeable membrane solute
‫ أ ال يعاِ يياِ قهيهّ ياخذ‬.. ِ‫انهي يعاِ يهر أ سكر كحير يسسة انًيا‬ molecule
semi-permeable membrane

‫يٍ ال يعاِ يياِ كحير‬

Osmotic pressure = Conc of salts
( Low osmotic pressure = low salts high osmotic
pressure osmosis water molecule

Lab. activity:
the solution level in the funnel stem increases as it
draws water from the beaker by osmosis, since the
sugar concentration in the funnel is higher than its
concentration in the beaker.

Physiological adaptations of freshwater organisms

to low osmotic pressure
In freshwater (The water in rivers is higher than fish) ( The osmotic pressure of the water is
lower than the osmotic pressure of their bodies ) So living organism absorb water
Unicellular organisms, such as amoeba, paramecium, and euglena, have contractile
vacuole that collects excess water in the cell and moves towards the cell membrane to
discharge the water outside of the cell to prevent cells from bursting and die ِ‫تحخرج انًياِ انسياد‬
‫تذل يا جفرقع‬
Contractile

Vacuole

Contractile

Vacuole

Contractile

Vacuole
Amoeba Paramecium Euglena

kidney
Multicellular organisms, such as fish, eliminate
excess water that enters the body through the skin, gills
mouth, and gills by the kidneys in the form of dilute

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Kidneys in fish
urine. In fish, the kidneys are located in the abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral
column .

While fish that live in saltwater need to swallow large amounts of sea water to compensate
for the osmotic loss of water from their body, and then they excrete excess salts through
their kidneys and specialized cells in their gills.

Urea is a nitrogenous compound that is excreted in the urine to get rid of it.
Sharks keep a high concentration of urea in their blood, which increases their osmotic
pressure to be close to the osmotic pressure of the surrounding water. to minimize the loss
of water from their body.‫جخهي انيٕريا )يهر( خٕاْا عطاٌ انًياِ يحطهعص ترِ خسًٓا‬

Behavioral adaptations ‫جغيير في انسهٕك‬ Structural adaptations ‫جغيير في انطكم‬

When salmon eggs hatch, their young 1- fish that live in the deep ocean have
spend the first period of their lives in very large eyes to be able to see in the
freshwater. During this stage, the dark, and their bodies are compressed to
youngsters adapt to the freshwater withstand the very high pressure in deep
environment. Upon reaching a certain size, water. (Ex : icefish )
the fish undergo a biological process known which lives in the
as “Smoltification” which allows them to cold southern oceans,
move to the saltwater of the sea. When at 2000 m depths
salmon reach sexual maturity, they begin to
return to the rivers where they were born to
Among the general structural adaptations of
reproduce.
fish are a streamlined body that reduces
The ability of salmon to move between water resistance to the fish's movement,
different environments is due to their ability gills that enable it to extract dissolved
to make complex physiological adaptations. oxygen in water,
For example, their circulatory and
and its body is covered with scales and
respiratory systems adapt to changes in
mucus to be waterproof to reduce water
salinity and
resistance to its movement, fins are
different
movement organs,
amounts of
oxygen in and bony fish have an air bladder or swim
fresh and bladder that helps them float in the water
salt water.

Salmon

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Choose the correct answer:
1. Which of the following is a physiological adaptation in deep ocean fish?
a ) Compressed body b) Strong arteries
c) Increasing blood pressure d) Large gills

2. Which of the following adaptations enables deep-sea fish to cope with deficiency of
oxygen?
a) Slower metabolic rate b) Compressed body
c) High concentration of salts in the cells d) Strong blood vessels

3.What does smoltification represent in salmon?

a) Behavioral adaptation b) Physiological adaptation
c) Structural adaptation d) Physiological and structural adaptation

4. Which of the following is a similarity between amoebas and fish?

a) Cellular respiration b) Gas exchange organ
c) Number of cells in the body d) Mechanisms of osmoregulation

5. Which of the following helps minimize water resistance to fish movement in water?
a) Scales only b) Mucus only
c) Mucus and streamlined body d) Streamlined body, mucus, and scales

6) Some physiological adaptations require the occurrence of certain structural

adaptations. Give one example.

7) What are the challenges that deep-water fish face and how do they adapt
structurally to them?
8) What is the effect of freshwater on the osmotic pressure of the cells of freshwater
organisms, and how do they cope with this

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 1-5 The effect of temperature on the marine
environment
Have you ever wondered how temperature affects marine organisms? Or
Why do the oceans stay warm even after the sun goes down?
Why, on a hot summer day, does the air around you feel hotter quickly, while
the water in lakes and rivers stays cooler ?
‫الرمل تيسخن تسرعو ب اقل حراره – تينما المياه تتكتسة حراره تصعوتو ف تتسخن تصعوتو و تتفقذ المياه تصعوتو‬
‫ترده‬
The specific heat of water is high compared to other substances and is equal to
4200 J/kg. K due to the presence of hydrogen bonds between its molecules

Some people confuse the concepts of “amount of heat” and “temperature.”

Although they are related, there is a difference in their meaning in physics.

Note : 1-Any object or system is made up of an enormous number of particles

that are spaced apart and in constant motion.

2-Internal energy of object or system = The sum of the potential energy ‫طاقة‬
‫ الوضع‬due to the position of the particles relative to each other and the kinetic
energy ‫ طاقة الحركة‬due to the motion of the particles
‫وظزيً االستل او رفغ اىقيم ه فوق ػشبن يقغ‬

The concept of the amount of heat refers to the energy transferred from,
to, or through an object when there is a temperature difference, and the
amount of heat is measured in Joules
(Joule) ‫ اىحزاري اه ٌتتىقو مه اىقيم ه‬- ‫ىو مسنت قيم سخه‬
‫ اىسخه يذي اىحزارة ىو ببرد‬. ‫ايذك‬

Temperature is a quantitative description of

how hot or cold an object or system is. ‫تؼبيز‬
‫ٌذا اىقيم سخه وال ببرد‬

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It represents the average kinetic energy of the particles of that object or
system,
‫اىجسم اىسبخه بيتحزك جزيئبتً امتز مه اىجسم اىببرد‬

2-its international unit is the Kelvin (K). (K = °C + 273), knowing that an

increase in temperature by one degree Celsius (°C) is equivalent to an increase
in temperature by one Kelvin (K)

When an object or system gains thermal energy, the amplitude of vibration of the
molecules, as well as their kinetic energy, increases, and so its temperature rises.

Does a unit of mass (1 kg) of different substances require the

same amount of heat for their respective temperatures to rise
by one kelvin?
_ ‫اىحذيذ بيسخه اسزع مه اىميبي‬
Substance Specific heat Substance Specific heat
(J/kg.K) (J/kg.K)
Zinc 388 Lead 130
Liquid 140 copper 385
mercury
Aluminum 897 Methanol 2450
Glass 840 Water vapor 2020
Carbon 710 Water 4180
iron 450 Ice 2060
Specific heat of matter (c)
The amount of heat gained by 1 kg of a substance that causes
its temperature to rise by 1 K is called the specific heat of this substance,
and its measuring unit is J/kg. K.

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The higher the specific heat of a substance, the more thermal energy
a given mass of this substance takes to raise its temperature by 1 K if
compared with an equal mass of another substance with a lower specific heat.
The amount of heat gained or lost by an object (Qth) can be calculated from the
relationship:

Where m: the body mass , ∆t: the amount of change in body temperature
Example
Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 0.3 kg of
copper from 20 degrees Celsius to 70 degrees Celsius given that the specific
heat of copper = 385 J/kg. K.

Solution
Qth = mc∆t = 0.3×385×(70-20) = 5775J

Example
A piece of aluminum with a mass of 200g and a temperature of 80 °C is
dropped into a quantity of water at room temperature. If the final
temperature of the system is 40 °C, calculate the amount of heat gained
by the amount of water. The specific heat of aluminum is 897 J/kg. K

Solution
Based on the law of conservation of energy, the amount of heat gained by the
water is equal to the amount of heat lost by the aluminum piece, assuming no
thermal energy leaked or lost from the system. (Use international units).
QAl = mAl⋅cAl⋅ΔTAl
QAl = (0.2 kg) . 897 J/kg. K) ⋅ (40°C - 80°C))
QAl = -7176 J
The negative sign here indicates that the aluminum piece has lost heat to the
water sample, so the amount of heat transferred to the water is 7176 J

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

The importance of the high specific heat of water:

The specific heat of water is high ( 4200 J/kg. K) due to the presence of
hydrogen bonds between its molecules, making it partially responsible for the
mild climate near large bodies of water.

The temperature of a large body of water during the summer is low

compared to the temperature of beach sand and rocks.

Air over land heats up, becomes

less dense, and rises upward.

Cooler air from above the surface

of the water moves landward, and
is called the sea breeze ‫وسيم اىبحز‬,
to replace the hot air that has
risen upward, as shown in the
figure.

Analytical activity:

Analyze the data in the table and then answer the following questions:

1) What are the factors that affect the specific heat of matter?

2) Which of the three states of water has the greatest value of specific heat?
The matter Its temperature The Physical state Specific heat
J/kg. K(C)
air 25°C Gas 1003.5
lead 25°C Solid 129
Pure water 25°C Liquid 4181.3
Water vapor 100°C Gas 2020
ice 0°C solid 2090

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

The effect of temperature changes on marine organisms:

Organisms that live in warm surface waters may be unable to survive in colder
depths. For example, coral reefs need specific temperatures to survive, and a
change in temperature due to climate change may lead to their death.

The high specific heat of water plays a large role in the relative stability of
water temperature in seas and oceans as water can absorb a large amount of
heat without a significant change in its temperature

This makes the oceans and lakes huge thermal reservoirs, because during the
day the water absorbs large amounts of solar energy without getting too hot,
and then slowly releases this energy at night, helping to maintain stable
temperatures in the surrounding marine environment.

This thermal balance protects marine organisms from rapid changes in

temperature, especially cold-blooded creatures (Poikilotherms), whose body
temperature depends on the temperature of the surrounding environment. For
this reason, we often find these organisms in the deep seas and oceans where
the temperature is stable.

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1-6 The effect of light & solar radiation on aquatic environments
Solar radiation ‫غاقة انطًس‬: is the energy produced by the
sun, some of which reaches the Earth. (The primary source of
energy for most processes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere
Solar radiation can be converted into other forms of energy, such
as heat and electricity, using various technologies. ّ‫تطاريّ انطاق‬
. ّ‫انطًسي‬- ّ‫ريًٕت تانطاقة انطًسي‬
The technical and economic advantages of these technologies depends on the available
resources of solar radiation. ‫ْحسحفيذ اقحصاديا زسة عُذك ضًس ٔال ال‬

Visible light (these colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) is
a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which propagates as electromagnetic waves that
differ in their wavelengths (λ) and frequency (ν) ( Wavelength inversely with frequency)

Solar radiation reaching Earth can be classified into:

Direct solar radiation Indirect solar radiation
(without scattering) ‫اشعاعات نازله هستقين‬ (scattered while passing through the
atmosphere) ‫تيخثػ في يسحٕيات اندٕ ف تيحطحث‬

The amount of solar radiation reaching a specific location or a

certain object depends on factors such as
geographic location season time of day, cloud cover,
and altitude
equator more than polar region summer more than winter ((‫ارجفاع عٍ سطر االرض‬
Solar radiation effect on water:
When sunlight penetrates the water’s surface, part of it is
absorbed by water ( warming), suspended matter,
and aquatic plants ( photosynthesis) , while the
other part scatters in the depths. ِ‫يص كم انعٕء ْيُسل نهًيا‬
‫– في َثاجات ْحسسة ظٕء ٔ اخساو في انًياِ جسسة انعٕء تردِ ٔ يحثقي‬
ِ‫ضٕيّ ظٕء يحٕزعٕا في انًيا‬

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Notes :
As water depth increases, the intensity of light gradually decreases.( inversely)
There are 3 different zones in the oceans :
1) the euphotic (sunlit surface ) zone (aquatic
plants, algae, phytoplankton, make
photosynthesis to convert solar energy into
chemical energy for growth and survival
2) the twilight (mesopelagic) zone
3) The aphotic (deep) zone. ‫الظالااام‬
When sunlight hits the ocean surface, part of it is reflected into the atmosphere.
The amount of energy that penetrates the water’s surface depends on the angle of the
sun's rays.
A greater amount of light penetrates the water when the sun's rays are perpendicular
to the surface, while less light penetrates when the rays are inclined or tilted.

1-within the top 10 centimeters of the surface. Water absorbs nearly all infrared
energy from sunlight
2-At a depth of 10 meters, more than 50% of visible light energy is absorbed.
3- depth of 100 meters in clear tropical waters, only 1% of visible light—mostly blue

This diagram illustrates the difference in

light penetration in shallow coastal
waters and the open ocean. When
different colors of the light spectrum
penetrate ocean waters, warmer colors,
like red and orange (with longer
wavelengths), are absorbed, while cooler
colors (with shorter wavelengths) are scattered.

The Effect of Solar Radiation on Ecological Balance in Aquatic Environments:

The role of solar radiation in the distribution of marine organisms:

Algae and phytoplankton ( photosynthesis) are in the surface (solar energy is found)

For example, coral reefs ‫ الشعاب الورجانيه‬live in warm shallow waters near the equator, where
solar radiation is available all year round. This radiation stimulates the growth of symbiotic
algae living within coral tissues, providing the coral with nourishment.

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The effect of Warm waters ( tropical regions ) attract specific types of tropical
solar radiation fish such as tuna and barracuda , while other species like cod
on water prefer colder waters found farther from the equator.
temperatures:

Changes in
solar radiation 1- in polar regions, where solar radiation is low or absent
intensity during the winter, photosynthesis rates drop affecting
seasonal the food availability for marine organisms. lead to a decline
changes or in the numbers of organisms that depend on photosynthesis,
climate which affect the food chain.
changes 2- On the other
hand, global
warming ‫الجو حر‬
causes rise in
water
temperatures,
leading to the
death of coral reefs, which affects the marine organisms’
dependence on coral reefs.

The effect of Ocean currents transfer heat and nutrients through the oceans.
solar radiation That make certain areas rich in food resources. For example,
on ocean
the Gulf Stream ‫ جيار انخهيح‬carries warm waters from the equator
currents: to the North Atlantic, moderating the climate in regions like
Western Europe and enhancing marine biodiversity.

Check your understanding (assessment):

1) How does the light gradient affect the distribution of marine organisms in the deep ocean?
2) Why is photosynthesis important for maintaining ecological balance in the oceans?

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

 1-7 The effect of water pressure on living organisms
Fluids (liquid and gases ) are substances characterized by their ability to flow ‫تححسزهق‬
While gases are characterized by their ability to compress easily and take up space, liquids
resist compression and therefore keep their volume almost constant.

Pressure at a point inside a liquid

A liquid has a pressure at any point inside it equal to the weight of
the liquid column above that point acting on the unit area of that
point. If an object is at that point, it experiences a force due to this
pressure that is perpendicular to its surface.
The force due to the pressure exerted on an object, which is due to
the presence of this object inside the liquid is calculated from the
relation, and its unit is Newton(N). ‫القوه الضاغطه‬
F = P × A.
Where P is the pressure at a point in N/m2, and A is the surface area in m2 exposed to the
pressure.
The pressure of a liquid (Pliquid) at a point inside this liquid, located at a depth (h) from its
surface is calculated from the relation
Pliquid = ρ g h
Where ρ is the density of the liquid in kg/m3, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
And if the surface of the liquid is subjected to atmospheric pressure (Pa),‫ نٕ االَاء يفحٕذ‬then
the total pressure acting on the point is calculated from the relation
Ptotal = Pa + Pliquid = Pa + ρ g h
The Factors affecting the magnitude of
the liquid pressure at a point inside it:
Liquid pressure is directly proportional to density and depth
(height)
The pressure is measured in units of N/m2, which is equivalent to the
Pascal unit. a larger unit, the bar.
1 Bar = 105 Pascal = 105 N/m2
Properties of liquid pressure
The pressure at a point inside a liquid act in all
directions equally.‫ انعغػ تيدي يٍ كم االجداْات زي تعط‬If
the pressure at a point in a certain direction is equal to
Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025
(P), then the pressure in any other direction at that point is equal to (P).

The pressure is the same at all points

which lie in the same horizontal plane
(level) in a homogeneous static (stagnant)
liquid. ‫ياداو انُقاغ خُة تعط يثقي عهيٓى َفس‬
‫انعغػ‬This explains the property of
connecting vessels, where the liquid in
vessels connected together rises to the
same horizontal plane in all vessels
regardless of their shape or cross section. It explains why the water level in connected seas
and oceans is at the same horizontal level. ‫انثسار ٔ انًسيطات انًحصهيٍ تثعط َفس انًسحٕي‬
The horizontal level of the sea surface is used as a reference level called ―sea level‖ to
measure the altitudes around the globe. ‫ارجفاع انساخة تُقارَٓا ب يسحٕي سطر انثسر‬
Example 1
An aquarium base of an area of 1000 cm2 contains water of the weight 4000 N, what is the
magnitude of water pressure acting on the bottom of the aquarium?
Solution

Example 2
Calculate the total pressure exerted on a swimmer at a depth of 10 m from the surface of a
lake of water if you know that the water density is 1000 kg/m3, the acceleration due to
gravity is 10 m/s2, and the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the lake is N/m2 1.013 × 105
Solution

‫سائم‬ ( )

Water pressure
1- At sea level, the pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure (1atm = 1.013×105 N/m2),
2- This pressure increases as the depth increases
due to the increase in weight of the water above the
object. ( increases by approximately 1 atm for every
10 m below the surface. For example, at a depth of
100 m, the pressure caused by water will be about 10
times greater than the atmospheric pressure.

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

3-In the deep sea, the pressure is very intense (unimaginable), yet many creatures can
adapt to high water pressure.

The effects of pressure on the biological adaptations of

creatures

First: The swim bladder (air bladder)

The surface water Organisms in the Organisms at the great
organisms: intermediate depths: depths:
Low water pressure 200-1000 m ( higher Greater than 2000 m
pressure) Ray Fish
body structure is less strong some fish have gas-filled 1-compact body structures
than those that live in the swim bladders that help 2-proteins and internal
depths. them control their floating fluids
and balance in the water, 3-do not have swim (air)
such as tilapia = bolti , or to bladders to ensure they do
move between different not collapse under this
depths as they migrate pressure,
between seas and rivers, such 4- they have a bladder that
as salmon contains liver oil liquids
instead of gases liver to
increase their buoyancy and
control depth

Second: Bony and cartilaginous

skeletons:
Bony fish or Osteichthyes (such as tilapia and mullet ‫تهطي‬
‫ )ٔ تٕري‬are characterized by having a skeleton made of
bones ( calcium). It provides strong support for the body
of fish and stabilizes the body under water pressures or
movement

Cartilaginous fish ّ‫االرٌ انطري‬or Chondrichthyes such as sharks and rays are a group of fish
characterized by having a cartilaginous skeleton instead of a bony one. Cartilage is a more
flexible and lighter tissue than bone

Third: Cellular membranes

The cellular membranes of deep-water organisms are characterized by the presence of
lipoproteins that promote membrane elasticity and prevent membrane collapse and
minimize the effect of pressure on cellular membranes, to prevent cell damage and
ensuring the continuation of vital functions.
Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025
 1 – 8 The role of solutions and concentrations in the
movement of water and the distribution of living
organisms
Water (not pure) in water bodies is mixed with several substances that are dissolved or
suspended in it which affect the density of the water, leading to changes in water
currents and the distribution of living organisms at different depths.

1 -Aqueous solutions
Solution: is a homogeneous mixture of a solvent (water) and a solute (chemical
substance such as salts or other substances ) ‫هياه وهلح‬
Concentration: is the amount of solute in a given volume of a solvent.
2 - The effect of concentration on the density of water:
The higher the concentration of dissolved substances in water, the higher the density of
water. ( directly)
These changes in density can lead to different
movements of the water (vertical currents) that carry
living organisms to different depths or to the surface
3 - The colligative properties of water
These are properties of a solution that depend on the
number of solute particles, not its type. Includes :
First: the vapor pressure of the liquid:
When a liquid and its vapour are in dynamic
equilibrium, the liquid vapour formed above the surface
of the liquid from evaporation exerts a pressure on the
surface of the liquid called the vapour pressure of the Particles
of solute
liquid.
Pure Water Solution ( Water and salts)
1-Molecules on the surface of the water can the water molecules have an additional
break free and become vapour stronger attraction force with the solute
2-The water molecules have attractive forces molecules, making the water molecules
to each other, Plus the attraction caused by less likely to evaporate.
the hydrogen bonds caused by the polarity of so fewer water molecules can evaporate,
the water molecule and the vapor pressure of the liquid
decreases.
The vapour pressure is inversely to
amount of solutes

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

Second: Boiling point (increases by increase the amount of solutes) Directly
1-The boiling point of a solution is higher than pure water due to the bonding forces
between the solute and solvent molecules, which increases the energy required to vaporize
the liquid.
2-A liquid boils when its vapor pressure reaches the value of atmospheric air pressure at the
surface of the liquid. So, the boiling point of a pure liquid under normal atmospheric
pressure is constant, so it is a property from which the purity of liquids can be inferred.
3- The boiling point of a pure liquid increases as the air pressure acting on its surface
increases. ( SO boiling point varies according to pressure )

Life applications
Can pure water boil at temperatures below 100⁰ C? To the air pump

What do you expect the boiling point of pure water to be in the following
conditions?
1 - At the top of a high mountain?
2 - Inside a pressure cooker?

The temperature of water is 20 ⁰ C

Third: Freezing point

The freezing point of the solution is always lower than the freezing point of pure water
because the attraction forces between water molecules and solute molecules hinder (‫ جعيق‬the
freezing process

Life application:
Salt is sprinkled on roads in cold areas after rainfall so that the rainwater turns into a salt
solution, and its freezing point is lower than the freezing point of water. Thus, the amount
of ice formed on the road’s decreases, which reduces the chances of accidents on the road.
ّ‫زػ يهر عطاٌ جًُع َدًذ انًياِ ف ييسذش انطريق في انذٔل انثهدي‬

Distribution of living organisms in aquatic environments based

on the concentration:
For example, marine organisms that live at great depths are adapted to high water densities
due to high concentrations of salts.

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025

The distribution of organisms in aquatic environments is affected by the following
factors:
1 - Water type (Fresh VS salt water)
Living organisms are distributed based on the type of water. For example, freshwater fish
cannot survive in saltwater, and vice versa.
2 - Osmotic adaptations
Living organisms need special adaptations according to the concentration of salts in their
environment and the osmotic pressure of water. Marine organisms are adapted to high
levels of salt, while freshwater organisms are adapted to avoid absorbing excess water.
3 - Concentration of nutrients and pollutants
Resource-rich environments support greater diversity, while polluted environments may lead
to lower diversity.
4 - Seasonal changes
Different seasons of the year affect the abundance of water, which affects the distribution of
organisms. For example, certain types of organisms may move to new areas during dry or
flood season.
5 - Water currents
Currents in water bodies affect the distribution of oxygen and nutrients, affecting the
gathering and feeding areas of organisms.
Check your understanding (assessment)
● How do concentrations of solutes affect the density of water?
● What is the relationship between the concentration of dissolved
substances and the movement of water currents?
● How do chemical solutions in water affect the distribution of marine
organisms?

Integrated Sciences – First Secondary Year 2024/2025