Designing a Database -- Understanding

Relational Design

Contents
OVERVIEW..........................................................................................................

THE DATABASE DESIGN PROCESS................................................................

Steps in Designing a Database.................................................................................
Common Design Problems......................................................................................
DETERMINING THE PURPOSE........................................................................

DETERMINING THE TABLES YOU NEED......................................................

DETERMINING THE FIELDS YOU NEED.......................................................

Tips for Determining Fields.....................................................................................
Primary Key Fields.................................................................................................
DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIPS..........................................................

REFINING THE DESIGN....................................................................................

ADDITIONAL READING AND PRACTICE......................................................

Overview
Microsoft® Access provides a number of tools that you can use to create a
relational database even if you don't have much experience with relational
design. For example, you can use the Database Wizard to create ten
predefined types of databases, from an Asset Tracking database to a Time
and Billing database.

Or, if you already have your data in a spreadsheet or table of some sort, but
you have repeating data (unnormalized data) and you want to separate the
data out into two or more relational Microsoft Access tables, you can use
the Table Analyzer Wizard to help you decide which fields need to be
moved to separate tables.

If you're not satisfied with having Microsoft Access do the work for you,
however, and you want to know more about relational database design, this
document is for you. It shows you how to plan and to design a database
from the ground up. For practical examples, it uses the database design of
 the Northwind Traders sample database included in the Microsoft Access
package.

The Database Design Process

The key to understanding the database design process lies in understanding
the way a relational database management system, such as Microsoft
Access, stores data. To efficiently and accurately provide you with
information, Microsoft Access needs to have the facts about different
subjects stored in separate tables. For example, you might have one table
that stores only facts about employees, and another that stores only facts
about sales.

When you use your data, you then combine and present facts in many
different ways. For example, you may print reports that combine facts about
employees and facts about sales.

When you design a database, you first break down the information you want
to keep as separate subjects, and then you tell Microsoft Access how the
subjects are related to each other so that Microsoft Access can bring the
right information together when you need it.

Steps in Designing a Database

 Here are the steps in the database design process. Each step is discussed
in greater detail in the remaining sections of this paper.

Step One: Determine the purpose of your database. This will help you
decide which facts you want Microsoft Access to store.

Step Two: Determine the tables you need. Once you have a clear
purpose for your database, you can divide your information into separate
subjects, such as "Employees" or "Orders." Each subject will be a table in
your database.

Step Three: Determine the fields you need. Decide what information you
want to keep in each table. Each category of information in a table is called
a field and is displayed as a column in the table. For example, one field in
an Employees table could be Last Name; another could be Hire Date.

Step Four: Determine the relationships. Look at each table and decide
how the data in one table is related to the data in other tables. Add fields to
tables or create new tables to clarify the relationships, as necessary.

Step Five: Refine your design. Analyze your design for errors. Create the
tables and add a few records of sample data. See if you can get the results
you want from your tables. Make adjustments to the design as needed.

Don't worry if you make mistakes or leave things out of your initial design.
Think of it as a rough draft that you can refine later. Experiment with sample
data and prototypes of your forms and reports. With Microsoft Access, it's
easy to change the design of your database as you're creating it. However,
it becomes much more difficult to make changes to tables after they're filled
with data and after you've built forms and reports. For this reason, make
sure that you have a sound design before pushing too far ahead.

Common Design Problems

There are several common pitfalls you may encounter when designing your
database. These problems can cause your data to be harder to use and
maintain. The following are signs that you should reevaluate your database
design:
• You have one table with a large number of fields that don't all relate to
the same subject. For example, one table might contain fields pertaining
to your customers as well as fields that contain sales information. Try to
make sure each table contains data about only one subject.
• You have fields that are intentionally left blank in many records because
they aren't applicable to those records. This usually means that the
fields belong in another table.
 • You have a large number of tables, many of which contain the same
fields. For example, you have separate tables for January sales and
February sales, or for local customers and remote customers, in which
you store the same type of information. Try consolidating all the
information pertaining to a single subject in one table. You may also
need to add an extra field, for example, to identify the sales date.

Determining the Purpose

The first step in designing a Microsoft Access database is to determine the
purpose of the database and how it's to be used. This tells you what
information you want from the database. From that, you can determine what
subjects you need to store facts about (the tables) and what facts you need
to store about each subject (the fields in the tables).

Talk to the people who will use the database. Brainstorm about the
questions you'd like the database to answer. Sketch out the reports you'd
like it to produce. Gather the forms you currently use to record your data.
You'll use all this information in the remaining steps of the design process.

Example: Tracking Sales and Inventory

Suppose that Northwind Traders, an import/export company that sells

specialty foods from around the world, wants a database that can track
information about the company's sales and inventory.

Start by writing down a list of questions the database should be able to

answer. How many sales of our featured product did we make last month?
Where do our best customers live? Who's the supplier for our best-selling
product?

Next, gather all the forms and reports that contain information the database
should be able to produce. Northwind Traders currently uses a printed
report to keep track of products being ordered and an order form to take
new orders. The following illustration shows these two documents.
 Northwind Traders also needs to print mailing labels for customers,
employees, and suppliers.

After gathering this information, you're ready for the next step.

Determining the Tables You Need

Determining the tables in your database can be the trickiest step in the
database design process. That's because the results you want from your
database -- the reports you want to print, the forms you want to use, the
questions you want answered -- don't necessarily provide clues about the
structure of the tables that produce them. They tell you what you want to
know, but not how to categorize the information into tables.

See the preceding order form as an example. It includes facts about the
customer -- the customer's address and phone number -- along with facts
about the order. This form provides you with a number of facts that you
know you want to store in your database. But you'd run into problems if you
stored the customer facts in the same table as the order facts:
• Introducing errors in duplicate information. Suppose that one
customer places three different orders. You could add the customer's
address and phone number to your database three times, once for each
order. But this multiplies the chance of data entry errors.

Also, if the customer moves, you'd have to either accept contradictory

information or find and change each of that customer's sales records in
the table. It's much better to create a Customers table that stores the
customer's address in your database once. Then if you need to change
the data, you change it only once.
• Deleting valuable information. Suppose a new customer places an
order and then cancels. When you delete the order from the table
containing information on both customers and their orders, you would
delete the customer's name and address as well. But you want to keep
this new customer in your database so you can send the customer your
next catalog. Again, it's better to put the information about the customer
in a separate Customers table. That way you can delete the order
without deleting customer information.

Look at the information you want to get out of your database and divide it
into fundamental subjects you want to track, such as customers,
employees, products you sell, services you provide, and so on. Each of
these subjects is a candidate for a separate table.
 Note: One strategy for dividing information into tables is to look at
individual facts and determine what each fact is actually about.
For example, on the Northwind Traders order form, the customer
address isn't about the sale; it's about the customer. This
suggests that you need a separate table for customers. In the
Products On Order report, the supplier's phone number isn't about
the product in stock; it's about the supplier. This suggests that
you need a separate table for suppliers.

Example: Designing Tables in the Northwind Database

The Northwind Traders order form and Products On Order report include
information about these subjects:
• Customers
• Suppliers
• Products
• Orders

From this list, you can come up with a rough draft of the tables in the
database and some of the fields for each table. It’s a good idea as you start
to design a database to write down the information you will need to have as
you create your tables.
 Although the finished Northwind database contains other tables, this list is a
good start. Later in this paper, you'll see how to add other tables to refine
your design.

Determining the Fields You Need

To determine the fields in a table, decide what you need to know about the
people, things, or events recorded in the table. You can think of fields as
characteristics of the table. Each record (or row) in the table contains the
same set of fields or characteristics. For example, an address field in a
customer table contains customers' addresses. Each record in the table
contains data about one customer, and the address field contains the
address for that customer.

Tips for Determining Fields

Here are a few tips for determining your fields:
• Relate each field directly to the subject of the table. A field that
describes the subject of a different table belongs in the other table.
Later, when you define relationships between your tables, you'll see how
 you can combine the data from fields in multiple tables. For now, make
sure that each field in a table directly describes the subject of the table.
If you find yourself repeating the same information in several tables, it's
a clue that you have unnecessary fields in some of the tables.
• Don't include derived or calculated data. In most cases, you don't
want to store the result of calculations in tables. Instead, you can have
Microsoft Access perform the calculations when you want to see the
result. For example, the Products On Order report shown earlier in this
paper displays the subtotal of units on order for each category of
product in the Northwind database. However, there's no Units On Order
subtotal field in any Northwind table. Instead, the Products table
includes a Units On Order field that stores the units on order for each
individual product. Using that data, Microsoft Access calculates the
subtotal each time you print the report. The subtotal itself doesn't need
to be stored in a table.
• Include all the information you need. It's easy to overlook important
information. Return to the information you gathered in the first step of
the design process. Look at your paper forms and reports to make sure
all the information you have required in the past is included in your
Microsoft Access tables or can be derived from them. Think of the
questions you will ask Microsoft Access. Can Microsoft Access find all
the answers using the information in your tables?
• Store information in its smallest logical parts. You may be tempted
to have a single field for full names, or for product names along with
product descriptions. If you combine more than one kind of information
in a field, it's difficult to retrieve individual facts later. Try to break down
information into logical parts; for example, create separate fields for first
and last name, or for product name, category, and description.

Example: Adding Fields to the Products Table

Northwind Traders sells imported specialty foods from around the world.
The employees use a Products On Order report to keep track of products
being ordered.
 The report indicates that the Products table, which contains facts about
products sold, needs to include fields for the product name, units in stock,
and units on order, among others. But what about fields for the supplier
name and phone number? To produce the report, Microsoft Access needs
to know which supplier goes with each product.

One approach would be to include Supplier Name and Supplier Phone fields
in the Products table, but this can cause more problems than it solves.
Since Northwind Traders might buy many products from the same supplier,
the name and phone number of the supplier would have to be repeated in
the Products table many times. If the phone number ever changed, it would
have to be changed many times as well.

Instead, create a Suppliers table, with separate fields for the supplier's
name and phone number. In the next step, you'll add a field to the Products
table that identifies the supplier information you need.

Primary Key Fields

The power in a relational database management system such as Microsoft
Access comes from its ability to quickly find and bring together information
stored in separate tables. In order for Microsoft Access to work most
efficiently, each table in your database should include a field or set of fields
that uniquely identifies each individual record stored in the table. This is
 often a unique identification number, such as an employee ID number or a
serial number. In database terminology, this information is called the
primary key of the table. Microsoft Access uses primary key fields to quickly
associate data from multiple tables and bring the data together for you.

If you already have a unique identifier for a table, such as a set of product
numbers you've developed to identify the items in your stock, you can use
that identifier as the table's primary key. But make sure the values in this
field will always be different for each record -- Microsoft Access doesn't
allow duplicate values in a primary key field. For example, don't use
people's names as a primary key, because names aren't unique. You could
easily have two people with the same name in the same table.

If you don't already have a unique identifier in mind for a table, you can use
a field that simply numbers the records consecutively. Microsoft Access can
even set up a primary key like that for you. For more information about
Primary Keys, search for "Primary Key" in Microsoft Access Help.

When choosing primary key fields, keep these points in mind:

• Microsoft Access doesn't allow duplicate or null values in a primary key
field. For this reason, you shouldn't choose a primary key that could
contain such values.
• You may use the value in the primary key field to look up records, so it
shouldn't be too long to remember or type. You may want it to have a
certain number of letters or digits, or be in a certain range.
• The size of the primary key affects the speed of operations in your
database. When you create primary key fields, you can set a property to
limit the size of the field. For best performance, use the smallest size
that will accommodate the values you need to store in the field. For
more information, search for "field size" in Microsoft Access Help.

Example: Setting the Primary Key for the Products Table

The primary key of the Northwind Products table contains product ID

numbers. Because each product number identifies a different product, you
don't want two products with the same number.
 In some cases, you may want to use two or more fields that together
provide the primary key of a table. For example, the Order Details table in
the Northwind database uses two fields as its primary key: Order ID and
Product ID. In the next step, you'll see why.

Determining the Relationships

Now that you've divided your information into tables, you need a way to tell
Microsoft Access how to bring it back together again in meaningful ways.
For example, the following form includes information from several tables.
Microsoft Access is a relational database management system. That means
you store related data in separate tables. Then you define relationships
between the tables, and Microsoft Access uses the relationships to find
associated information stored in your database.

For example, suppose that you want to phone an employee with questions
about a sale the employee made. Employee phone numbers are recorded in
the Employees table; sales are recorded in the Orders table. When you tell
Microsoft Access which sale you're interested in, Microsoft Access can look
up the phone number based on the relationship between the two tables. It
works because Employee ID, the primary key for the Employees table, is
also a field in the Orders table. In database terminology, the Employee ID
field in the Orders table is called a foreign key, because it's a primary key
from a different table.
 Note If you open the Orders table in the sample Northwind
database included with Microsoft Access in Datasheet view, you’ll
notice that there is an Employees field but no Employee ID field.
The Employees field is actually the Employee ID field, but the
Caption property is set to “Employee” and properties have been
set on the Lookup tab to display the employee names rather than
the ID numbers. The illustration above uses the Employee ID field
to make the association between the tables clear. Later
illustrations in this document also show the ID fields for education
purposes rather than the lookup text that appears in the
Northwind database. To learn more about how lookup tables
work, search for “lookup table” in Microsoft Access Help.

So, to set up a relationship between two tables -- Table A and Table B --

you add one table's primary key to the other table, so that it appears in both
tables. But how do you decide which table's primary key to use? To set up
the relationship correctly, you must first determine the nature of the
relationship. There are three types of relationships between tables:
• One-to-many relationships
• Many-to-many relationships
• One-to-one relationships

The rest of this section presents an example of each type of relationship

and explains how to design your tables so that Microsoft Access can
associate the data correctly.

Note This section explains how you determine the relationships

between your tables and how you decide which fields belong in
 the tables to support those relationships. You use the
Relationships window to create the relationships. For more
information, search for "Relationships window" in Microsoft
Access Help.

Example: Creating a One-to-Many Relationship

A one-to-many relationship is the most common type of relationship in a

relational database. In a one-to-many relationship, a record in Table A can
have more than one matching record in Table B, but a record in Table B has
at most one matching record in Table A.

For example, the Suppliers and Products tables in the Northwind database
have a one-to-many relationship.

To set up the relationship, you add the field or fields that make up the
primary key on the "one" side of the relationship to the table on the "many"
side of the relationship. In this case, you would add the Supplier ID field
from the Suppliers table to the Products table, because one supplier
 supplies many products. Microsoft Access uses the supplier ID number to
locate the correct supplier for each product.

Example: Creating a Many-to-Many Relationship

In a many-to-many relationship, a record in Table A can have more than

one matching record in Table B, and a record in Table B can have more
than one matching record in Table A. This type of relationship requires
changes in your database design before you can correctly specify the
relationship to Microsoft Access.

To detect many-to-many relationships between your tables, it's important

that you look at both directions of the relationship. For example, consider
the relationship between orders and products in the Northwind Traders
business. One order can include more than one product. So for each record
in the Orders table, there can be many records in the Products table. But
that's not the whole story. Each product can appear on many orders. So for
each record in the Products table, there can be many records in the Orders
table.

The subjects of the two tables -- orders and products -- have a many-to-
many relationship. This presents a problem in database design. To
understand the problem, imagine what would happen if you tried to set up
the relationship between the two tables by adding the Product ID field to the
Orders table. To have more than one product per order, you need more
than one record in the Orders table per order. You'd be repeating order
information over and over for each record that relates to a single order -- an
inefficient design that could lead to inaccurate data. You run into the same
problem if you put the Order ID field in the Products table -- you'd have
more than one record in the Products table for each product. How do you
solve this problem?

The answer is to create a third table that breaks down the many-to-many
relationship into two one-to-many relationships. You put the primary key
from each of the two tables into the third table.

Each record in the Order Details table represents one line item on an order.
The Order Details table's primary key consists of two fields -- the foreign
keys from the Orders and Products tables. The Order ID field alone doesn't
work as the primary key for this table, because one order can have many
line items. The Order ID is repeated for each line item on an order, so the
field doesn't contain unique values. The Product ID field alone doesn't work
either, because one product can appear on many different orders. But
together the two fields always produce a unique value for each record.

In the Northwind database, the Orders table and the Products table aren't
related to each other directly. Instead, they are related indirectly through the
Order Details table. The many-to-many relationship between orders and
products is represented in the database using two one-to-many
relationships:
 • The Orders and Order Detail tables have a one-to-many relationship.
Each order can have more than one line item, but each line item is
connected to only one order.
• The Products and Order Detail tables have a one-to-many relationship.
Each product can have many line items associated with it, but each line
item refers to only one product.

Example: Creating a One-to-One Relationship

In a one-to-one relationship, a record in Table A can have no more than one

matching record in Table B, and a record in Table B can have no more than
one matching record in Table A. This type of relationship is unusual and
may call for some changes in your database design.

One-to-one relationships between tables are unusual because in many

cases, the information in the two tables can simply be combined into one
table. For example, suppose you created a Ping-Pong Players table to track
information about a Northwind Traders ping-pong fundraising event.
Because the ping-pong players are all employees of Northwind Traders, this
table has a one-to-one relationship with the Employees table in the
Northwind database.

You could add all the fields from the Ping-Pong Players table to the
Employees table. But the Ping-Pong Players table tracks a one-time event,
 and you won't need the information after the event is over. Additionally, not
all employees play ping-pong, so if these fields were in the Employees table,
they would be empty for many records. For these reasons, it makes sense
to create a separate table.

When you detect the need for a one-to-one relationship in your database,
consider whether you can put the information together in one table. If you
don't want to do that for some reason, here's how to set up the relationship:
• If the two tables have the same subject, you can probably set up the
relationship by using the same primary key field in both tables.
• If the two tables have different subjects with different primary keys,
choose one of the tables (either one) and put its primary key field in the
other table as a foreign key.

Refining the Design

Once you have the tables, fields, and relationships you need, it's time to
study the design and detect any flaws that might remain.

Create your tables, specify relationships between the tables, and enter a
few records of data in each table. See if you can use the database to get
the answers you want. Create rough drafts of your forms and reports and
see if they show the data you expect. Look for unnecessary duplications of
data and eliminate them.

As you try out your initial database, you will probably discover room for
improvement. Here are a few things to check for:
• Did you forget any fields? Is there information that you need that isn't
included? If so, does it belong in the existing tables? If it's information
about something else, you may need to create another table.
• Did you choose a good primary key for each table? If you use it to
search for specific records, is it easy to remember and type? Make sure
that you won't need to enter a value in a primary key field that duplicates
another value in the field.
• Are you repeatedly entering duplicate information in one of your tables?
If so, you probably need to divide the table into two tables with a one-to-
many relationship.
• Do you have tables with many fields, a limited number of records, and
many empty fields in individual records? If so, think about redesigning
the table so it has fewer fields and more records.
Example: Refining the Products Table

Each product in the Northwind Traders stock falls under a general category,
such as Beverages, Condiments, or Seafood. The Products table could
include a field that shows the category of each product.

Suppose that in examining and refining the database, Northwind Traders

decides to store a description of the category along with its name. If you add
a Category Description field to the Products table, you have to repeat each
category description for each product that falls under the category -- not a
good solution.

A better solution is to make Categories a new subject for the database to

track, with its own table and its own primary key. Then you can add the
primary key from the Categories table to the Products table as a foreign
key.
 The Categories and Products tables have a one-to-many relationship: one
category can have more than one product in it, but any individual product
can belong to only one category.

Additional Reading and Practice

If you want to do additional reading on database design, you may want to
look at some of the following books.

Date, C. J. An Introduction to Database Systems. 5th ed. Vol. 1. Reading:

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1990.

Kroenke, David, and Kathleen Dolan. Database Processing: Fundamentals,

Design, and Implementation. Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1988.

Pascal, Fabian. SQL and Relational Basics. Redwood City: M&T Books,
1990.

Viescas, John L. Running Microsoft Access. Redmond: Microsoft Press,

1993.