The Circuit Abstraction

Circuits represent systems as connections of elements

• through which currents (through variables) flow and
• across which voltages (across variables) develop.

+
−

− + +

− −
The Circuit Abstraction

Current flows through a flashlight when the switch is closed

The Circuit Abstraction

We can represent the flashlight as a voltage source (battery) con­

nected to a resistor (light bulb).

i
+
+
v
−
−

The voltage source generates a voltage v across the resistor and a

current i through the resistor.
The Circuit Abstraction

We can represent the flow of water by a circuit.

ri (t) ri ro

+
P = ρgh
h(t) −
ro (t)

Flow of water into and out of tank are represented as “through”

variables ri and ro , respectively. Hydraulic pressure at bottom of
tank is represented by the “across” variable P = ρgh.
The Circuit Abstraction

Circuits are important for two very different reasons:

• as physical systems
− power (from generators and transformers to power lines)
− electronics (from cell phones to computers)
• as models of complex systems
− neurons
− brain
− cardiovascular system
− hearing
The Circuit Abstraction
Circuits are basis of enormously successful semiconductor industry.

# of transistors
Dual-Core Itanium 2
1,000,000,000
Itanium 2
Itanium
100,000,000
Pentium 4
Pentium III
Pentium II 10,000,000
Pentium
80486 1,000,000
80386
80286 100,000
8086
10,000
8080
8008
4004
1,000
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
year

What design principles enable development of such complex systems?

The Circuit Abstraction
Circuits represent systems as connections of elements
• through which currents (through variables) flow and
• across which voltages (across variables) develop.
ri (t) ri ro

+
P = ρgh
h(t) −
ro (t)

The primitives are the elements:

• sources,
• capacitors, and
• resistors.

The rules of combination are the rules that govern

• flow of current (through variable) and
• development of voltage (across variable).
Analyzing Circuits: Elements

We will start with the simplest elements: resistors and sources

i i i
+ + +
+
R v V0 v I0 v
−
− − −

v = iR v = V0 i = −I0
Analyzing Simple Circuits
Analyzing simple circuits is straightforward.
Example 1:
i

+1V 1Ω v

The voltage source determines the voltage across the resistor, v =

1V, so the current through the resistor is i = v/R = 1/1 = 1A.

Example 2:
i

+1A 1Ω v

The current source determines the current through the resistor, i =

1A, so the voltage across the resistor is v = iR = 1 × 1 = 1V.
Check Yourself

What is the current through the resistor below?

+1V 1Ω v +1A

1. 1A
2. 2A
3. 0A
4. cannot determine
5. none of the above
Check Yourself

What is the current through the resistor below?

+1V 1Ω v +1A

The voltage source forces the voltage across the resistor to be 1V.
Therefore, the current through the resistor is 1V/1Ω = 1A.

Does the current source do anything?

Check Yourself

Does the current source do anything?

+1V 1Ω v +1A

If all of the current from current source flowed through the resistor,
then it would generate 1V across the resistor.

Since the voltage generated by the current source is equal to that

across the voltage source, the voltage source provides zero current.

The current source supplies all of the current through the resistor!
Check Yourself

What is the current through the resistor below?

+1V 1Ω v +1A

1. 1A
2. 2A
3. 0A
4. cannot determine
5. none of the above
Analyzing More Complex Circuits

More complex circuits can be analyzed by systematically applying

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
Analyzing Circuits: KVL

KVL: The sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
− −
Analyzing Circuits: KVL

KVL: The sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
− −

Example: −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0 or equivalently v1 = v2 + v4 .

How many other KVL relations are there?

Check Yourself

How many KVL equations can be written for this circuit?

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
− −

1. 3 2. 4 3. 5 4. 6 5. 7
Check Yourself

+ +
+ v2 v3
B
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
A C
− −

A : −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0
B : −v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
C : −v4 + v6 + v5 = 0
Check Yourself

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
D
− −

D : −v1 + v3 − v6 + v4 = 0
Check Yourself

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
E
− −

E : −v1 + v2 + v6 + v5 = 0
Check Yourself

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
F
− −

F : −v4 − v2 + v3 + v5 = 0
Check Yourself

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
G
− −

G : −v1 + v3 + v5 = 0
Check Yourself

There are 7 KVL equations for this circuit.

A : − v 1 + v2 + v4 = 0
B : − v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
C : − v4 + v6 + v5 = 0
D : − v1 + v3 − v6 + v4 = 0
E : − v1 + v2 + v6 + v5 = 0
F : − v4 − v 2 + v 3 + v 5 = 0
G : − v1 + v 3 + v 5 = 0

Not all of these equations are linearly independent.

Check Yourself

How many KVL equations can be written for this circuit?

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
− −

1. 3 2. 4 3. 5 4. 6 5. 7

But not all of these equations are linearly independent.

Analyzing Circuits: KVL

Planar circuits can be characterized by their “inner” loops.

KVL equations for the inner loops are independent.

+ +
+ v2 v3
B
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− + v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
A C
− −

A : −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0
B : −v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
C : −v4 + v6 + v5 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KVL

All possible KVL equations for planar circuits can be generated by

combinations of the “inner” loops.

+ +
+ v2 v3
+ − −
v1 = V 0
− A+B
+ v6 −
− + +
v4 v5
− −

A : −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0
B : −v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
A+B : −v1 + v2 + v4 − v2 + v3 − v6 = −v1 + v3 − v6 + v4 = 0
KVL: Summary

The sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

One KVL equation can be written for every closed path in a circuit.

Sets of KVL equations are not necessarily linearly independent.

KCL equations for the “inner” loops of planar circuits are linearly
independent.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

The flow of electrical current is analogous to the flow of incompress­

ible fluid (e.g., water).

→ i2
i1 →
→i
3

Current i1 flows into a node and two currents i2 and i3 flow out:
i1 = i2 + i3
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

The net flow of electrical current into (or out of) a node is zero.

i1 i2 i3

Here, there are two nodes, each indicated by a dot.

The net current out of the top node must be zero:

i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0 .
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Electrical currents cannot accumulate in elements, so current that

flows into a circuit element must also flow out.

i1 i2 i3

i4 i5 i6

i1 = i4
i2 = i5
i3 = i6

Since i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 it follows that

i 4 + i5 + i6 = 0 .
Check Yourself

How many linearly independent KCL equations can be

written for the following circuit?

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 5. 5
Check Yourself
How many linearly independent KCL equations can be written for
the following circuit?
i2 i2
i1 i3 i4

i1 i3 i4

There are four element currents: i1 , i2 , i3 , and i4 .

We can write a KCL equation at each of the three nodes:
i1 + i2 = 0
i2 = i3 + i4
i1 + i 3 + i 4 = 0
Substituting i2 from the second equation into the first yields the third
equation. Only two of these equations are linearly independent.
Check Yourself

How many linearly independent KCL equations can be

written for the following circuit? 2

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 5. 5
Check Yourself

How many distinct KCL relations can be written for this

circuit?

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

1. 3 2. 4 3. 5 4. 6 5. 7
Check Yourself
A
i2 i3
i1

+ B i6 C
− i4 i5

D
A: i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
B: −i2 + i4 + i6 = 0
C: −i6 − i3 + i5 = 0
D: i1 + i4 + i5 = 0
Check Yourself

These equations are not linearly independent.

1: i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0
2: −i2 + i4 + i6 = 0
3: −i6 − i3 + i5 = 0
4: i 1 + i4 + i5 = 0

Substitute i2 from 2 and i3 from 3 into 1.

i1 + (i4 + i6 ) + (i5 − i6 ) = i1 + i4 + i5

This is equation 4!

There are only 3 linearly independent KCL equations.

Check Yourself

How many distinct KCL relations can be written for this

circuit?

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

1. 3 2. 4 3. 5 4. 6 5. 7
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The number of independent KCL equations is one less than the

number of nodes.

Previous circuit: four nodes and three independent KCL equations.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

This relation follows from a generalization of KCL, as follows.

Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

node 1: i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

node 1: i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0
node 2: − i 2 + i4 + i6 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

node 1: i 1 + i2 + i3 = 0
node 2: − i 2 + i4 + i6 = 0
nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i 3 − i6 + i 5 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

nodes 1+2: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i 3 − i6 + i 5 = 0
nodes 1+2+3: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 − i3 − i6 + i5 = i1 + i4 + i5 = 0
Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain mul­
tiple nodes) is zero.

i2 i3
i1

+ i6
− i4 i5

nodes 1+2: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i 3 − i6 + i 5 = 0
nodes 1+2+3: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 − i3 − i6 + i5 = i1 + i4 + i5 = 0

Net current out of nodes 1+2+3 = net current into bottom node!
KCL: Summary

The sum of the currents out of any node is zero.

One KCL equation can be written for every closed surface (which
contain one or more nodes) in a circuit.

Sets of KCL equations are not necessarily linearly independent.

KCL equations for every primitive node except one (ground) are
linearly independent.
KVL, KCL, and Constitutive Equations

Circuits can be analyzed by combining

• all linearly independent KVL equations,
• all linearly independent KCL equations, and
• one constitutive equation for each element.

i2 i3
i1 + +
+ v2 v3
+ − i6 −
v1 = V 0
− i4 + v6 − i 5
− + +
v4 v5
− −
KVL, KCL, and Constitutive Equations

Unfortunately, there are a lot of equations and unknowns.

i2 i3
i1 + +
+ v2 v3
+ − i6 −
v1 = V 0
− i4 + v6 − i 5
− + +
v4 v5
− −

12 unknowns: v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 , i5 and i6 .

12 equations: 3 KVL + 3 KCL + 5 for resistors + 1 for V source

This circuit is characterized by 12 equations in 12 unknowns!

Node Voltages

The “node” method is one (of many) ways to systematically reduce

the number of circuit equations and unknowns.
• label all nodes except one: ground (gnd) ≡ 0 volts
• write KCL for each node whose voltage is not known

V0

KCL at e1 :
R2 R3 e1 − V0 e1 − e2 e1
R6 + + =0
+ R2 R6 R4
V0 e1 e2
−
KCL at e2 :
R4 R5 e2 − V0 e2 − e1 e2
+ + =0
R3 R6 R5

gnd

• solve (here just 2 equations and 2 unknowns)

Loop Currents

The “loop current” method is another way to systematically reduce

the number of circuit equations and unknowns.
• label all the loop currents
• write KVL for each loop

loop a:
R2 R3 −V0 + R2 (ia − ib ) + R4 (ia − ic ) = 0
ib R6
+ loop b:
V0
− R2 (ib − ia ) + R3 (ib ) + R6 (ib − ic ) = 0
R4 R5
ia ic loop c:
R4 (ic − ia ) + +R6 (ic − ib ) + R5 (ic ) = 0

• solve (here just 3 equations and 3 unknowns)

Analyzing Circuits: Summary

We have seen three (of many) methods for analyzing circuits.

Each one is based on a different set of variables:
• currents and voltages for each element
• node voltages
• loop currents

Each requires the use of all constitutive equations.

Each provides a systematic way of identifying the required set of

KVL and/or KCL equations.
Check Yourself

Determine the current I in the circuit below.

I

3Ω
+15 V 2Ω +10 A

1. 1 A 2. 53 A 3. −1 A 4. −5 A
5. none of the above
Check Yourself

Node method:
I e

3Ω
+15 V 2Ω +10 A

KCL at node e:

e − 15 e 5
+ = 10 → e = 15 → e = 18
3 2 6

15 − 18
I= = −1 A
3
Check Yourself

Loop method:

3Ω
I

I 10
+15 V 2Ω +10 A

KVL for left loop:

−15 + 3I + 2(I + 10) = 0 → 5I = −5 → I = −1 A

Check Yourself

Determine the current I in the circuit below. 3

I

3Ω
+15 V 2Ω +10 A

1. 1 A 2. 53 A 3. −1 A 4. −5 A
5. none of the above
Common Patterns

Circuits can be simplified when two or more elements behave as a

single element.

A “one-port” is a circuit that can be represented as a single element.

i +

v
−

A one-port has two terminals. Current enters one terminal (+) and
exits the other (−), producing a voltage (v) across the terminals.
Series Combinations

The series combination of two resistors is equivalent to a single

resistor whose resistance is the sum of the two original resistances.

i i
+ +
R1
v R2 v Rs
− −

v = R1 i + R2 i v = Rs i

Rs = R1 + R2

The resistance of a series combination is always larger than either

of the original resistances.
Parallel Combinations
The parallel combination of two resistors is equivalent to a single
resistor whose conductance (1/resistance) is the sum of the two
original conductances.

i i
+ +
v R1 R2 v Rp
− −

v v v
i= + i=
R1 R2 Rp
1 1 1 R1 + R2 1 R1 R2
= + = → Rp = 1 1 = ≡ R1 ||R2
Rp R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 + R2
R1 + R2

The resistance of a parallel combination is always smaller than either

of the original resistances.
Check Yourself

What is the equivalent resistance of the following one-port.

1 1

2 1

1. 0.5 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 5. 5
Check Yourself

Combine two rightmost resistors (series):

1 1 1

2 1 2 2

Combine rightmost parallel resistors, then the resulting series.

1 1

2 2 1 2
Check Yourself

What is the equivalent resistance of the following one-port.

1 1

2 1

1. 0.5 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 5. 5
Voltage Divider

Resistors in series act as voltage dividers.

R1 V1

R2 V2

V
I=
R1 + R2

R1
V1 = R1 I = V
R 1 + R2

R2
V2 = R2 I = V
R 1 + R2
Current Divider

Resistors in parallel act as current dividers.

I
I1 I2

V
R1 R2

V = (R1 ||R2 ) I

V R1 ||R2 1 R1 R2 R2
I1 = = I= I= I
R1 R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 + R2

V R1 ||R2 1 R1 R2 R1
I2 = = I= I= I
R2 R2 R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Check Yourself

1Ω 3Ω

15V 12Ω 6Ω Vo

Which of the following is true?

1. Vo ≤ 3V
2. 3V< Vo ≤ 6V
3. 6V< Vo ≤ 9V
4. 9V< Vo ≤ 12V
5. Vo > 12V
Check Yourself
1Ω 3Ω

15V 12Ω 6Ω Vo

Add the top two resistances to get the series equivalent: 4Ω.
12Ω × 6Ω
Then find the parallel equivalent: = 4Ω.
12Ω + 6Ω
4Ω

15V 4Ω Vo

4Ω
Now apply the voltage divider relation: Vo = × 15V = 7.5V.
4Ω + 4Ω
Check Yourself

1Ω 3Ω

15V 12Ω 6Ω Vo

Which of the following is true? 3

1. Vo ≤ 3V
2. 3V< Vo ≤ 6V
3. 6V< Vo ≤ 9V
4. 9V< Vo ≤ 12V
5. Vo > 12V
Summary

Circuits represent systems as connections of elements

• through which currents (through variables) flow and
• across which voltages (across variables) develop.

We have seen three (of many) methods for analyzing circuits.

Each one is based on a different set of variables:
• currents and voltages for each element
• node voltages
• loop currents

We can simplify analysis by recognizing common patterns:

• series and parallel combinations
• voltage and current dividers