Wireless Networks

and
Mobile Computing

Wireless Local Area Networks(WLANs)

Tuumay, June. 2024

1
 Wireless Networks

2
 Types of Wireless Networks

WLANs: Wireless Local Area Networks


Network in, such as a university campus or library, to form a
network or gain access to the Internet. → Infrastructured

A temporary network can also be formed by a small number of
users without the need of an access point; given that they do
not need access to Internet resources. → Ad Hoc

WPANs: Wireless Personal Area Networks


Infra Red (IR) and Bluetooth

allow the connectivity of personal devices within an area

IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.

3
 … (cont’d)

WMANs: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks


allows the connection of multiple networks in a metropolitan
area
✔
e.g; different buildings in a city

Can be an alternative or backup to laying copper or fiber
cabling

WWANs: Wireless Wide Area Networks (also called WANs)


Maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an
ISP.

Referred to as 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Generation systems (2G, 3G, 4G,
5G)
4
 WLAN Technologies - standards

What is a standard?
Two main standard families for wireless LANs.


IEEE 802.11(802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, ...)


ETSI Hiperlan(Hiperlan Type 1, Hiperlan Type 2, HiperAccess,
HiperLink, …)


802.11 is the most successful and relevant standard

Hiperlan is a European alternative for IEEE 802.11

*IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

*ETSI: European Telecommunications Standards Institute
*Hiperlan: High Performance Radio LAN
5
 IEEE 802 Standards

6
 IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is a set of medium access control (MAC) and physical layer
(PHY) specifications for implementing Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN) communication.

The standard provides the basis for wireless network products using
the Wi-Fi brand. It is a network access technology for providing
connectivity between wireless stations and wired networking
infrastructures.

Specifies a wireless interface standard for both:


Wireless Networks that work with access
point(Infrastructured) and

Wireless networks that work in an ad hoc mode(between
wireless clients).
7
 Protocol Stack

8
 802.11 standard (some of the versions)

802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11a, versions of the standard are used for
wi-fi networks and also are widely used.

9
 IEEE 802.11 (Radio) Evolution

The main difference between the versions of the standard is at the physical
layer. At the MAC layer, all versions of the standard are the same.

10
 Summary

There are two standard families that define how WLANs should work.

IEEE 802.11 ← standard by the Amaricans

Hiperlan ← standard by the Europeans
IEEE is the most famous and widely used standard. So, every WLANs devices,
that we use in our daily life, works according to the IEEE 802.11 standard.
The IEEE 802.11 standard is broken into two main layers:

The Media Access Control layer (MAC)

The Physical layer (PHY)
These two layers allow a functional separation of the standard and, more
importantly allows a single data protocol to be used with several different
RF transmission techniques.
The standard has different versions, since 1997. But, versions b, a and g are
the most successful and currently implemented technologies.

11
 802.11 Physical(PHY) Layer

The PHY layer of the 802.11 standard defines the different Radio
Transmission(RF) techniques.
Physical medium can be copper wire, fiber optic cable, twisted pair in OSI model
or wireless channel in 802.11.
There are three basic transmission techniques:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS, and

Diffuse Infrared
The DSSS is the most popular technique used. This is mainly due to the
higher bandwidth available to the DSSS implementation and the fact
that the DSSS function lends itself better to interoperability between
different implementations.
The DSSS technique operates in channels spread between 2.4 and 2.497
GHz. However, the specific channels available vary by country and the
regulation agencies which controls the spectrum allocation. 12
 … cont'd

Differences at Physical Layer:


'b' and 'g' both operate at 2.4GHz frequency band.

However, while 'b' technology uses DSSS transmission technique, 'g'
technology uses OFDM.

The fact that 'g' employs OFDM allows us to achieve much higher bit
rate.
– 'b' allows max. bit rate of 11Mbps
– 'g' allows max. bit rate of 54Mbps

The 'a' version of the standard operates at 5GHz, higher frequency
than 'b' & 'g'.

Higher frequency implies that the radio range of the standard is low.
“The higher the frequency, the higher the attenuation. The higher the
attenuation, the weaker the signal and therefore, the lower the radio
range.”
13
 … cont'd


But, the 'a' standard employs OFDM transmission technique at the
physical layer and as a result allows a very high bit rate (up to 54Mbps)

'b' and 'g' can only use 3 frequency channels that are not overlapping,
in the 2.4GHz frequency spectrum.

'a' has 12 non overlapping frequency channels to use.

Why? If you look at the spectrum, it is true that there are 14 defined channels.
But, only 3 of them(for b & g) that are not overlapping can be selected.
Conclusion: At the physical layer, there are main differences among the
standards:

In the frequency bands that are used

The technique that is used to transmit data

*DSSS = Direct Sequence Space Spectrum

*OFDM = Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

14
 Channel Allocation in the Radio Frequency spectrum

ISM Bands:
There are a number of unlicensed spectrum bands in a variety of areas of the
radio spectrum. Often these are referred to as ISM bands - Industrial, Scientific and
Medical, and they carry everything from microwave ovens to radio
communications.
Wi-Fi is aimed at use within unlicensed spectrum. This enables users to access the
radio spectrum without the need for the regulations and restrictions that might
be applicable elsewhere. The downside is that this spectrum is also shared by
many other users and as a result the system has to be resilient to interference.
The main bands used for carrying Wi-Fi are those in the table below:

15
 … cont'd

2.4 GHz 802.11 channels and frequencies:


There is a total of 14 channels defined for use by Wi-Fi 802.11 for the 2.4 GHz ISM band.

Not all of the channels are allowed in all countries

The 802.11 WLAN standards specify a bandwidth of 22 MHz

16
… cont'd

17
 … cont'd

2.4 GHz Wi-Fi channel overlap and selection:


The channels used for Wi-Fi are separated by 5 MHz in most cases
but have a bandwidth of 22 MHz. As a result channels overlap and it
can be seen that it is possible to find a maximum of three non-
overlapping channels.


If there are many BSSs that are near by to each other, it is better the
BSSs work on different frequency channels to avoid interference.


Like in large campuses where you may need to deploy many access
points, the 'b' & 'g' technologies could be a problem. Here comes the
advantage of the 'a' technology over 'b' and 'g' , because it has 12
possible channels.

18
 … cont'd

2.4 GHz Wi-Fi channel overlap and selection:

channels are labeled by channel number and center frequency, in MHz.


From the diagram above, it can be seen that Wi-Fi channels 1, 6, 11, or 2, 7, 12,
or 3, 8, 13 or 4, 9, 14 (if allowed) or 5, 10 (and possibly 14 if allowed) can be
used together as sets. Often Wi-Fi routers are set to channel 6 as default, and
therefore the set of channels 1, 6 and 11 is possibly the most widely used.

19
 … cont'd

2.4 GHz Wi-Fi channel overlap and selection:

The 2.4 GHz band is divided into 14 overlapping channels.

20
 Network Architecture of 802.11 Standards

Basic Service Set(BSS):


Basic architectural unit in a wireless local area network

Set of nodes that use the same coordination function to access the
channel.

Group of nodes that:
– implement the 802.11 technology(either b,g or a),
– are able to communicate between each other and
– are located in the same geographical area.

The area that correspond to the BSS is called “Basic service area”

BSS configuration mode
– With infrastructure: the BSS is connected to a fixed
infrastructure through a centralized controller
– Ad hoc mode
21
 WLAN Architecture (… cont'd)

WLAN with Access point Ad Hoc WLAN

Consider the groups of nodes above, assume the BSSs are using 'b'
technology, meaning:

Each node has a 802.11b radio interface that operates in one of the
three possible frequency channels and they are located close by to
each other.

The bunch of nodes form a network.
– they may include an access point – Wireless LAN with access point
– may communicate in an ad hoc mode – Ad Hoc Wireless LAN
22
 … cont'd

The 802.11 logical architecture contains several main components:


Station (STA),

Wireless access point (AP),

Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS),

Basic Service Set (BSS),

Distribution System (DS), and

Extended Service Set (ESS).
Wireless STA: contains an adapter card, PC Card, or an embedded device to
provide wireless connectivity.
Wireless AP: functions as a bridge between the wireless STAs and the existing
network backbone for network access.
IBSS: is a wireless network, consisting of at least two STAs, used where no access
to a DS is available. An IBSS is also sometimes referred to as an ad hoc wireless
network.

23
 … cont'd

BSS: is a wireless network, consisting of a single wireless AP supporting

one or multiple wireless clients. A BSS is also sometimes referred to as an
infrastructure wireless network. All STAs in a BSS communicate through
the AP. The AP provides connectivity to the wired LAN and provides
bridging functionality when one STA initiates communication to another
STA or a node on the DS.

ESS: is a set of two or more wireless APs connected to the same wired
network that defines a single logical network segment bounded by a
router (also known as a subnet).

DS: The APs of multiple BSSs are interconnected by the DS. This allows for
mobility, because STAs can move from one BSS to another BSS. APs can be
interconnected with or without wires; however, most of the time they are
connected with wires. The DS is the logical component used to
interconnect BSSs. The DS provides distribution services to allow for the
roaming of STAs between BSSs. 24
 … cont'd
.

25
 Node Movement(Networked BSSs)

If there are more than one BSSs in a geographical area, those BSSs will be
interconnected to each other by a cable or through wireless technology. In this
case, we have a wireless network where, the access points are inter-connected by
a distribution system.

If a user moves from one BSS to an other BSS, he/she must stay connected to the
wireless LAN. Because, the different access points(AP) that correspond to the
different BSSs are interconnected to the distribution system.

In the case of BSSs that work in ad hoc mode, the radio interface that is found in
the wireless users that are in the BSS is configured in ad hoc mode. So, nodes can
communicate between each other and when they move to different BSSs, they use
the distribution system in the ad hoc network.

** The fact that the 802.11 nodes communicate based on the infrastructure mode
or ad hoc mode depends on how their wireless card is configured.

26
 Joining a BSS

Consider a wireless node which is switched “ON” on a wireless

networked area. What are the operations that the node will
perform to join the network?

When we have a BSS with access point, the steps that are
performed by the wi-fi card are Scanning, Authentication, and
Association.
When a wireless node wants to connect to BSS which is working in
an ad hoc mode, the only step that it needs is scanning.
The first thing that the card needs to do is to discover other nodes.

27
 Joining a BSS(BSS with AP)

Scanning:

The wireless card will listen for possible frequency channels. Example: If
the card is a 'g' card, it will scan the channels working at 2.4GHz in order
to discover an access point operating at 2.4GHz.

How can a wireless card node find an access point? - Active scanning and
passive scanning
Passive Scanning:

Access points periodically(every 100ms) broadcast a massage that is called
“Beacon”.

This beacon includes the “BSS ID”, which uniquely identifies the BSS

A wireless card listens the frequency channel for a given time, waits until
it gets an access point transmitting at the frequency channel in which it is
operating.

If there is an access point, they will record the signal to noise ratio in
order to identify the quality of the signal received.

The node will pass to another channel and repeat the same operation.
28
 Joining BSS with AP (… cont'd)


At the end of the scanning operation, you will have a list of all access
points and their signal to noise ratio that tells you how good is the
reception from the access point.

The node has also read the BSS IDs and it will have the identifiers of
each BSS.
Active Scanning:

To speed up the scanning process

A wireless node, instead of listening to the frequency channel to just
wait for a beacon message, it can send “ProbeRequest frame” to all
the channels and wait & see if any one replies to its message.

All APs with in reach will reply with a “ProbeResponse frame”, to
get discovered themselves.

The node will have to select the best access point from the list of
access point that are with in reach.

29
 Joining BSS with AP (… cont'd)

Authentication:
Once a wireless node selects AP, it needs to authenticate itself. Why? → not
every body is authorized to use that AP.


In order to operate in that BSS, you have to provide your credentials.

But, there are APs that are open and you don't need to authenticate
yourself with username and password.


So, you find access points to which you can connect without providing
any credentials. Why? → sometimes the access points uses old
communication systems in which, the only thing the access point has
is a list of MAC addresses of wireless nodes. And any user that has a
wireless card with MAC address that is found in the list can connect to
the access point.

30
 Joining BSS with AP (… cont'd)

Other access points that are more protected, uses the shared key
authentication. And in that case, you will need username and password.
Your wireless card should share a secret key with the access point and
perform a security procedure in order to authenticate itself.

The Security procedures are quite simple:


The access point sends a random number to the user

The user sends back an encrypted random number using the secret
key that the access point shared.

AP compares this number with its own result of the encryption
operation

If true, the user has the right secret key.

AP sends back a message notifying that the user has been allowed
access.
31
 Joining BSS with AP (… cont'd)

Assuming that the user has the correct credentials to use the AP
and has authenticated itself to the AP, the user can exchange
packets with the AP. However, before it starts exchanging data an
association step should be performed.
Association:

Once a user is authenticated, it starts the association process, i.e.
information exchange about the AP/station capabilities.

The user sends an “AssociationRequest frame” including information
about itself. The characteristics of the wireless card will be included
in the frame.

Another important information that is going to be included is
whether the user has previously been associated to other access
points.

If “yes”, it has to inform the new BSS that it was previously been
connected to other APs.
32
 Joining BSS with AP (… cont'd)

The AP replies to the AssociationRequest frame with
“AssociationResponse frame”, which includes its characteristics.
Example:
– Which types of cards(b,g,a) it can support
– The data rate it can support
– The frequency band it operates on


The new AP will inform the old AP about the user joining to its BSS,
called “hand over process”


Two important aspects of Association:
– Exchanging information about each other's characteristics.
– Notifying the old AP, if the user is on hand over.

33
 Joining a BSS (IBSS)

In the case of ad hoc networks, the only step required to join a BSS
is scanning. But, who is sending the beacon message during the
scanning process, since there is no access point which controls the BSS?

Scenarios:
a) In a case where, a BSS is operating in ad hoc mode and all nodes in the BSS are
in radio visibility to each other.

We assume that the first node which switched “ON” its wireless card
is the node which periodically broadcasts the beacon.
Rule: If a node doesn't hear any beacon, after a timeout, it will start
sending the beacon. Other nodes that comes after it will listen to the
channels. They will find that in the frequency channel in which they
want to operate on, there is a node sending a beacon. They will connect
with this node and will compose a BSS in an ad hoc mode.
34
 Joining IBSS (… cont'd)

b) In a case where, there are different IBSSs that can't hear to each other(not in a radio
visibility). So, they are separate IBSSs. But, a new wireless node at the middle of the
two IBSSs which is in radio range to both IBSSs(can hear beacons from both IBSSs)
wants to join to an ad hoc network. Which IBSS should it join?


Assuming both IBSSs operate in the same radio frequency channel, the
new node will start operating in that frequency channel that both IBSSs
are operating.

The new node will hear beacons from both IBSSs, but doesn't know which
beacon it should follow.

The standard doesn't have a solution for this problem(though, people can
come up with their own algorithms based on distance and the BSS which
transmits the beacon first … )

The concept of beaconization in an ad hoc networks is not completely solved

yet.
35
 IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol

Physical Layer Functionality:

The PHY is the interface between the MAC and wireless media, which transmits and
receives data frames over a shared wireless media.
Provides three levels of functionality:

Provides frame exchange between the MAC and PHY

uses signal carrier and spread spectrum modulation to transmit data frames
over the media

provides a carrier sense indication back to the MAC to verify activity on the
media.
MAC Layer Functionality:
MAC protocol supplies the functionality required to provide a reliable delivery
mechanism for user data over noisy, unreliable wireless media.

reliable data delivery (frame transmission)

fairly control access to the shared wireless medium(coordination of the nodes
that are part of the BSS to access the communication channel).

protect the data that it delivers(error control) ← frame retransmission 36
 … cont'd

MAC Frames:
What kind of packets do nodes exchange with in a BSS? In 802.11, packets
at the MAC layer are called frames.

control frames: e.g. ACK, handshake for accessing the channel(RTS,CTS)

data packets, that carry information

management packets: connection establishment/release, synchronization,
authentication.
Exchanged as data frames, but are not reported to higher layer. e.g Beacons

In the case of data packets, the payload of the packets may vary. We may
have long frames and short frames depending on the payload size.

In general, this tells you that the duration of a transmission of a packet

varies depending on the size of the payload and the data rate that you
are using to send the packet.
37
 … cont'd

MAC – Data Transfer Functions: Two possible transmission functions

are implemented at the MAC layer
Distributed(Distributed Coordination Function – DCF)

Asynchronous data transfer for delay-tolerant traffic (like file
transfer)

Based on CSMA/CA

Widely used function

Centralized (Point Coordination Function – PCF)


Asynchronous data transfer for real-time traffic(like audio and
video)

Controlled by the central access point

Was intended to support QoS. But it is not able to support QoS and is
never implemented
38
 Distribution Coordination Function – DCF

DCF is a fully distributed transmission scheme.

It works in both BSSs working based on infrastructure and in ad hoc
mode (exactly the same protocols in both cases).

This means, in a wireless LAN with AP, the AP access the channel in the
same way as the other nodes in the network. There are no differences in
the way the AP transmits data over the channel.

Remark 1:

DCF works based on CSMA/CA ← not CSMA/CD

Why? In wireless Networks, the communication nodes are equipped
with only one transceiver. They can't transmit and receive at the
same time.

39
 … cont'd (Time slot)

Remark 2:

In wireless networks, time is divided into time slots and all nodes are
synchronized according to such time distribution.


Time slot is the sum of the following two parameters
– The time interval that allows a node to switch from transmit to
receive mode or vice versa ( TX/RX turnaround time)
– The time interval that allows a node to detect whether there is a
signal in the channel (Power detection time)


– 802.11b: slot time = 20μs

– 802.11a: slot time = 9μs
– 802.11g: slot time = 20μs or 9μs

40
 … cont'd (Time slot)

A BSS is always a synchronized system.


All nodes will have their own internal clock and will be synchronized
to this clock.


The internal clock of a node may become inactive for a long time.
So, nodes should get resynchronized continuously.


To let the node continuously be resynchronized, we use the beacon
frame.


If there is an access point, it means that all nodes will be
synchronized with the access point, or they will be synchronized
based on the node that issues the Beacon in an ad hoc mode.

41
 … cont'd (Interframe space)

Interframe Space(IFS):
IFS is the time interval between frame transmissions.
DCF is an access scheme that makes use of different time periods,
interframe spaces.

4 types of IFS:

Short IFS (SIFS)

Point coordination IFS (PIFS) > SIFS

Distributed IFS (DIFS) > PIFS

Extended IFS (EIFS) > DIFS

** SIFS and DIFS are the important ones in DCF

** Duration depends on physical layer implementations
42
 … cont'd

Short IFS (SIFS):

To separate transmissions belonging to the same dialogue
Associated to the highest priority
Its duration depends on:

Propagation time over the channel

Time to convey the information from the PHY to the MAC layer

Radio switch time from the TX to RX mode


802.11b: SFIS = 10μs

802.11a: SIFS = 16μs

802.11g: SIFS = 10μs

43
 … cont'd

Point Coordination IFS (PIFS):

Used to give priority access to point coordinator(PC)
Only the PC can access the channel between SIFS and DIFS
PIFS = SIFS + 1 time slot (802.11b = 30μs, 802.11a = 25μs, 802.11g = 20μs )

Distributed IFS (DIFS)

Used by stations waiting for a free channel to contend
Set to: PIFS + 1 slot time(i.e., in 802.11b: 50μs)

Extended IFS (EIFS)

Used by a station when the PHY layer notifies the MAC layer that a
transmission has not been correctly received.

44
 DCF Access Scheme – The Basic Protocol

Basic Characteristics:
DCF is based on the Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA) scheme. ← Not CSMA/CD (which is
for Ethernet technology)


Stations that have data to transmit contend for accessing the
channel


A station has to repeat the contention procedure every time it
has a new data frame to transmit.

45
 IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol overview: CSMA/CA

802.11 CSMA sender


If sense channel idle for DIFS
time
then transmit entire frame

If sense channel busy
then binary backoff
802.11 CSMA receiver

If received OK
then return ACK after SIFS
802.11 CSMA Protocol: Others

NAV: Network Allocation Vector

802.11 frame has transmission time
field

Others (hearing data) defer for NAV
time units (save energy) 46
 Hidden Terminal Effect

Hidden Terminals: A,C can't hear each other


Obstacles, signal attenuation

Collisions at B
Goal:

avoid collision at B
Solution:

CSMA/CA with hand shaking

47
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol overview: Handshaking

CSMA/CA: explicit channel reservation


Sender: send short RTS (Request To
Send)

Receiver: reply with short CTS
(Clear To Send)

CTS reserves channel for the sender, by

notifying (possibly hidden) stations

Avoid hidden station collisions

RTS & CTS are short:


Collisions less likely, of shorter
duration

End result similar to collision
detection 48
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS

49
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS – Handshaking

50
 DCF: The Basic Access Mode

Double Carrier Sensing Function: CSMA

Used to determine whether the channel is idle or busy.
Performed at the physical(Physical carrier sensing) and at the MAC
layer(virtual carrier sensing).
Physical Carrier Sensing:

detection of nearby energy sources.

a node measures the power level of the channel,

this power level must be low enough that it tells the node – there is no noise
in the channel.
Virtual Carrier Sensing:

the frame header indicates the duration of the MAC PDU (MPDU) included
in the frame header.

The NAV counter of a node must be zero, a node to access the channel.
** MPDU = MAC Protocol Data Unit = data packet duration
** Channel is idle, if both those two functions tells so. 51
 … cont'd

Network Allocation Vector (NAV):

Used by the stations nearby the transmitter to store the duration
of the frame that is occupying the channel.

The channel will become idle when the NAV expires.

A node is able to set its NAV counter, when it is able to read the
header of a packet correctly.

If a node can hear a packet at the channel (physical layer), but can
not correctly demodulate the header of the packet, it can't set the
NAV counter.

52
 … cont'd

Using DIFS and SIFS

Transmitter:

senses the channel

If the channel is busy, it differs its transmission(backoff procedure)

If the channel is idle, it waits a time equal to DIFS

If the channel remains idle for DIFS, it transmits its MPDU
Receiver:

Demodulates the signal received.

Computes the checksum thus verifying whether the transmission is
correct.

If so, it sends an ACK after a time equal to SIFS.

It should always transmit an ACK with a rate less than or equal to
the one used by the transmitter.

If error in check sum, packet failure. 53
 … cont'd

Using DIFS and SIFS

Neighbors:

Set their NAV to the value indicated in the transmitted data packet
unit.

NAV set to: Data packet unit + 1 SIFS + ACK

** The ACK depends on a successful transmission or not. 54

 … cont'd

Packet Failure (Frame Retransmission):

A frame transmission may fail because of collision or error on the
radio channel.

A failed transmission is re-attempted till a max no. of

retransmissions is reached, after which the frame will be
discarded from the MAC layer.

A node can't start retransmission right away. Has to recontend the

channel.

Extracts a backoff procedure, after which it can try to access the

channel and retransmit its frame.
55
 … cont'd

Recontending for the Channel:

A station, which has just transmitted a frame, recontends for the
channel when:


A frame transmission fails and the frame must be retransmitted, or


It has completed the transmission of a packet but still has data to
transmit

To recontend for the channel means that a station has to perform

the backoff procedure(collision avoidance) before accessing the
channel.

56
 Backoff Procedure

The backoff procedure is carried out in the following

3 cases

Channel is busy

Transmission failure

A node has multiple packets to transmit

57
 Backoff Procedure (collision Avoidance)

How the Backoff Procedure works?

1. In order to extract the backoff time, the station must sense the
channel as idle for DIFS time.

If it senses the channel as busy, it waits for the channel to become
idle. => must finish its NAV

2. As soon as the channel is idle for DIFS, the station


Computes the backoff time interval.

Sets the backoff counter to this value and then decreases it with
time.

3. The station will be able to transmit when its backoff counter

reaches 0.
58
 … cont'd

Frame Transmission:

**CW= Contention Window

59
 … cont'd

How a node extracts a random value?

Backoff Value:

60
 … cont'd

Backoff Decrease:
While the channel is busy, the backoff counter is frozen

While the channel is idle, the station decrements the backoff value
until

The channel becomes busy or

The backoff counter reaches zero

61
 … cont'd

Collision Avoidance: Remarks

1. If more than one station decreases its counter to zero at the same
time → Collision.

2. colliding stations have to recompute a new backoff value.

3. Backoff used to desynchronize contending stations.

4. If frame loss is due to channel errors, doubling the CW is not beneficial.

5. Broadcast MAC frames are always transmitted at the basic rate and
never retransmitted in case of failure.

62
 Post Backoff

After completing a transmission, a station waits for the ACK and then
performs the backoff procedure, no matter whether it has a new frame
to transmit or not.

In summary, there are only two cases where a station sends a frame after
having sensed the channel as idle for DIFS, without waiting for a backoff
time:


The station has just entered the BSS and the channel is idle, or


Its post-backoff time has already passed and the channel is idle.

63
 Backoff Procedure

64