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SHRI TULJABHAVANI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

TULJAPUR.
A
Project Report
On
“LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT”
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree in Bachelor of
Mechanical Engineering is being submitted to Shri Tuljabhavani College of
Engineering, Tuljapur.
.

Submitted By
Kavade Shrikrishna Maruti
1921311612004
Pawar Chetan Rajendra
52213120181861211002
Pende Akash Sanjay
1921311612006

Under The Guide Of

Prof. D. M. Dalwe

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHRI TULJABHAVANI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, TULJAPUR
(2021-2022)
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SHRI TULJABHAVNI COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING TULJAPUR

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT” is a report
of the Project done by Mr. Kavade Shrikrishna Maruti, Mr. Pawar Chetan Rajendra,
Mr. Pende Akash Sanjay towards the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree in
Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering in Shri Tuljabhavani College of
Engineering, Tuljapur as prescribed by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological
University, Lonere, during the academic year “2021-2022”.

Place - Tuljapur
Date -

PROJECT GUIDE HOD

Prof. D. M. Dalwe Prof. V. B. Pansare

PRINCIPAL
Dr. N. D. Pergad
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ABSTRACT
Line Follower is one of the most important aspects of robotics. A Line Following
Robot is an autonomous robot which is able to follow either a black line that is drawn on
the surface consisting of a contrasting color. It is designed to move automatically and
follow the line. The robot uses arrays of optical sensors to identify the line, thus assisting
the robot to stay on the track. The array of four sensor makes its movement precise and
flexible. The robot is driven by DC gear motors to control the movement of the wheels.
The Arduino Uno interface is used to perform and implement algorithms to control the
speed of the motors, steering the robot to travel along the line smoothly. This project aims
to implement the algorithm and control the movement of the robot by proper tuning of the
control parameters and thus achieve better performance. In addition the LCD interface is
added in order to display the distance travelled by the robot. It can be used industrial
automated equipment carriers, small household applications, tour guides in museums and
other similar applications, etc.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our profound and deep sense of gratitude to Prof. D. M. Dalwe,
Project Co-ordinator, Department of Mechanical Engineering for sparing his valuable
time to extend help in every step of our project work.
We whole heartedly express our thanks to, Prof. Vaibhav Pansare, Project Supervisor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, for sparing time to go through every tiny detail
and give his valuable suggestions to make this project and report a success.
We are mainly indebted to the authors of many references and articles which were used as
the reference.
Last but not the least we would like to thank our friends and college staff for their help in
every way for the success of this project report.

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INDEX

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.

1 INTRODUCATION 4

2 TECHNOLOGY AND LITERATURE 7

3 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 14

4 KINEMATICS OF THE ROBOT 18

5 RESULT AND ANALYSIS 24

6 ADVANTAGE AND APPLICATION 27

7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 28

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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

A. Abbreviations
Abbreviation Full Form
CPU Central Processing Unit
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
IC Integrated Circuit
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LDR Light Dependent Resistor
LED Light Emitting Diode
MHz Mega Hertz
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
Rx Receiver
SRAM Static Read Only Memory
Tx Transmitter

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CHAPTER 1

1. Introduction
Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black
line on a white surface. Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while
constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback from the sensor forms a simple yet
effective system. It can be used in automobile, industrial automations, guidance, etc [1].

Background

As technology becomes increasingly important in today's world, it is invaluable to not

only learn how to use technology, but also to understand how to create it. Since being the
engineer one should have sound knowledge of the other discipline. Most of the projects
have limited scope to only specific discipline. This would limit ones innovation and
creativity. This project inspires to make connections across several disciplines rather than
learning topics in isolation as it combines mechanical, electronic, electrical and
programming skills.
 It gives visual grasp of math and science.
 It builds logical thinking.
 It brings out innovation and creativity.
 It enhances problem solving skills.
The robot designed in a such way that it not only track the path and follow it but also
visualize the distance travelled through the LCD displays.

Motivation

How ants always travel in a line, following any visible route in search of food, or
back home. How on roads the lanes is followed to avoid accidents and traffic jams. Ever
thought about a robot which follows line? A perfect or near perfect mimic of nature?
After all the purpose of robotics is to recreate in terms of machines what one see around
to solve a problem or fulfill a requirement.
The area will be benefitted from the project
 Industrial automated equipment carriers
 Entertainment and small household applications.
 Tour guides in museums and other similar applications.
 Second wave reconnaissance operations.

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Problem Description

In the industry carriers are required to carry products from one manufacturing plant
to another which are usually in different buildings or separate blocks. Conventionally,
carts or trucks were used with human drivers. Unreliability and inefficiency in this part of
the assembly line formed the weakest link. The project is to automate this sector, using
carts to follow a line instead of laying railway tracks which are both costly and an
inconvenience.

Objectives

The objectives of the project are:

 The robot must be capable of following a line.
 It should be capable of taking various degrees of turns.
 The robot must be insensitive to environmental factors such as lighting and noise.
 It must allow calibration of the line’s darkness threshold.
 Scalability must be a primary concern in the design.
 It also shows the distance travelled by it through LCD display.

Methodology

 After the detail literature survey through the books, periodical, journal, magazine,
websites. The idea of the project is well defined.
 The logic is derived for the intelligence of the robot. It is programmed and burn it
to the Arduino by using the software Arduino® 1.65.
 The accuracy and viability of the program and electronic components is tested in
the simulation software Proteus®.
 After the successful simulation result it is implemented in the hardware.
 After the finishing the programming, electrical and electronics part, the stable,
reliable and flexible mechanical design and fabrication is completed.
 Finally system is tested and encountered error is omitted.

Limitations

The system has restricted to the following limitation.

 Choice of line is made in the hardware abstraction and cannot be changed by
software.
 Calibration is difficult, and it is not easy to set a perfect value.
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 Few curves are not made efficiently, and must be avoided.

 The turning radius should be of minimum 100m to take smooth U-turning of
robot.
 The width of the path must be of 45mm so that it can cover minimum 3 sensors.
 The path should be plane and obstacle free.
 The steering mechanism is not easily implemented in huge vehicles
and impossible for non-electric vehicles.

Organization of Report

This report is a documentary delivering the ideas generated, concepts applied, and
activities done it contains four chapters. The following is a description of information in
this thesis. Chapter 1 provides a general overview of the project and the use and
importance of autonomous robots in the world. The objectives, scope of project, problem
statement are also described in this chapter.
Chapter 2 describes the hardware development unit in line following robot. This chapter
describes about sensor arrays, Arduino, motor driving system, it also describes the project
methodology and explains hardware development for the design of the robot.
Chapter 3 contains the process explanation with working algorithm, flowchart and sketch
of the Arduino.
Chapter 5 contains all the results obtained from the software experiments that include the
algorithm implemented in a program.
Finally, chapter 5 will summarize the final year project. The conclusion, suggestions or
recommendations for improvements that can be implemented in future are discussed
within this chapter.

Summary

Line Follower is one of the most important aspects of robotics. A Line Following
Robot is an autonomous robot which is able to follow either a black or white line that is
drawn on the surface consisting of a contrasting color. It is designed to move
automatically and follow the plotted line. It enhances interdisciplinary approach to
mechanical,electronic, electrical and programming skills. The application of the project is
range from the individual domestic appliance to automation and control aspect of large
industry. Human are intelligent natural machine but it has serious limation of efficiency
and realiblity. Robots are made to replace dependency of human force partially. The
project is somehow designed to perform the similar task.

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CHAPTER 2

2. Technology and Literature Survey

The line follower is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line that is drawn
on the floor .The line follower robot using Arduino is a self-operating system that detects
and follows track drawn on the floor. The track consists of a black path drawn on white
surface.

Basic Operation
The basic operations of line follower are as follows:
 Capture line position with optical sensors mounted at front end of the robot. For
this a combination of IR-LED and Photodiode called an optical sensor has been
used. This make sensing process of high resolution and high robustness.
 Steer robot requires steering mechanism for tracking. Two motors governing
wheel motion are used for achieving this task.
 This system has LCD display panel to show the distance that it covers.
 On the detecting no black surface robot move in a circular motion until line is
found.

Block Diagram

Main Power Motor

Supply Power
Supply
f L293D Right Motor Proximity
DC Motor Sensor
Control Left Motor
Arduino
Uno LM324
Comparator
Threshold
Voltage
LCD Sensor
pannel Array

Figure 2-1: Block Diagram of the Line following Robot.

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Hardware Required
The hardware required is divided in the following category:

Input System
The detail of each components is discussed below.

Optical Sensors
The robot uses photodiode sensors to sense the line; an array of four IR- LEDs (TX)
and Photodiode sensors (Rx), facing the ground used in this setup. An analog signal is
obtained in output, depends on the amount of light reflected back, which is provided to
the comparator to produce 0s and 1s which are then fed to the Arduino.

1.5 cm 1.5 cm 1.5 cm

Top View of position of sensors
Left Right
Figure 2-2: Arrangements of the Sensor

The sensors on the left named as L1, L2 and R1, R2 on the right side. Assumption should
be considered that when a sensor is on the line it reads 0 and when it is off the line it reads
1. The Arduino correspondence to the algorithm given below decides the next movement,
trying to position the robot such that all sensors read 0.
With sensors, robots can react and respond to changes in their environment in ways that
appear intelligent or life-like.

Arrangement of Sensors
An array of sensors arranged in a straight row pattern is bolted under the front of the
robot. It locates the position of line below the robot. Distance between two adjacent
sensors is about 1.5 cm.
We can use any number of sensors. If we have low number, then our robot movement is
not smooth and it may face problems during sharp turns. If higher number of sensors
were, used robot movement will become smooth and reliable for sharp turns; it requires
complex programming for micro-controller and requires more hardware, which is its
disadvantage. Thus, optimum number of sensors required.

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Comparator
Comparator is a device, which compares two input voltages and gives output high
or low. In circuit diagram it is normally represented by a triangle having-Inverting
(negative) Input, Non-Inverting (positive) Input (+), Vcc, Ground, Output.
Properties of comparator:
If V+ > V- then Vo=Vcc (Digital High Output is 1)
If V+ < V- then Vo=0 (Digital Low Output is 0)

VCC 5V

Inverting(-ve) -
Input Comparator
Non-Inverting OUTPUT (Vo)
(+ve) Input

GROUND

Figure 2-3: Schematic of Comparator Logic

Optical sensor
As shown above that two inputs are required for comparator. One input is from
photo- receiver (like Photodiode), other is generated by resistor. The second voltage is
reference voltage for that sensor.

Figure 2-4: Optical Sensor schematic

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Processing unit
Processing system acts as the brain of robot, generating desired output for
corresponding inputs, in which microcontrollers are used. There are several companies
nowadays that manufacture microcontrollers, for example ATMEL Corporation,
Microchip, Intel, Motorola etc. We will be using ATmega32L microcontroller in our
robot. It is known as AVR1.

Arduino
Arduino is an open-source computer hardware and software company, project and
user community that designs and manufactures microcontroller-based kits for building
digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical
world. The heart of Arduino is the microcontroller. For Arduino Uno ATmega328 is
used.It has specification of 8 bit CPU, 16 MHZ clock speed, 2 KB SRAM 32 KB flash
Memoary, 1 KB EEPROM [2].

Features:-
 14 digital input output pins (3,5,6,9,10 and 11 pins are able to generate PWM).
 6 analog input pins
 Voltage input from the 7 – 12 V

Figure 2-5: Arduino Uno Schematic

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Output System
The output system is designed with the function of the following components.[2]

Motor Driver
Motor driver is a current enhancing device; it can also be act as Switching Device. Thus,
after inserting motor driver among the motor and microcontroller. Motor driver taking the
input signals from microcontroller and generate corresponding output for motor.

IC L293D
This is a motor driver IC that can drive two motor simultaneously. Supply voltage
(Vss) is the voltage at which motor drive. Generally, 6V for dc motor and 6 to 12V for
gear motor are used, depending upon the rating of the motor. Logical Supply Voltage
deciding what value of input voltage should be considered as high or low .So if the
logical supply voltage equals to +5V, then -0.3V to 1.5V will be considered as Input low
voltage and 2.3V to 5V is taken into consider as Input High Voltage. The Enable 1 and
Enable 2 are the input pin for the PWM led speed control for the motor L293D has 2
Channels .One channel is used for one motor[2]

Figure 2-6: Pin Configuration IC L293D

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DC Motor

Motor is a device that converts any form of energy into mechanical energy or
imparts motion. In constructing a robot, motor usually plays an important role by giving
movement to the robot. In general, motor operating with the effect of conductor with
current and the permanent magnetic field. The conductor with current usually producing
magnetic field that will react with the magnetic field produces by the permanent magnet
to make the motor rotate. There are generally three basic types of motor, DC motor, even
servomotor and stepper motor, which are always being used in building a robot.

DC motors are most easy for controlling. One DC motor has two signals for its
operation. Reversing the polarity of the power supply across it can change the direction
required. Speed can be varied by varying the voltage across motor.

Figure 2-7: Low Volt DC Gear Motor attach with Wheel.

LCD Display

In our project it is used to display the distance travelled by the robot through the output
from the tachometer system.

Figure 2-8: Schematic of LCD Panel

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Proximity Sensor

The combination of IR- LED and Photodiode is used as the reflective optical sensor. It
generate interrupt when the IR-beam is break to the photodiode. To create the IR break-
beam, IR LED is used with a low value resistor so that it shines very bright. The receiver
is Photodiode which biases 'on' whenever the IR LED's light is detected. A sensor will be
placed adjacent the IR link and turned on so as to generate a pulse to the Arduino. The
Arduino LCD interface is used to show the covered distance digitally.

Figure 2-9: Proximity Sensor

Software Required
For the simulation of the circuit, Proteus® software is used. For coding and
uploading the sketch, the Arduino 1.65 ® is used.[3]

Summary
The system is completed in to the three division i.e. is the Input system, Processing
System and Output system.
Input system comprises of the optical sensor, is an array of 4 IR-LED and Photodiode
pairs arranged in the form straight lines. The output from each sensor is fed into an analog
comparator with the threshold voltage (used to calibrate the intensity level difference of
the line with respect to the surface). These 4 signals (from each photo-reflective sensor) is
given to a priority analog input of the arduino [3].
Processing system is Arduino Uno interface consisting microcontroller Atmega328 which
works on the basic of the logic of the program burn to it.
Output system consist combination L293D and gear-motor the control has 6 modes of
operation, turn left/right, move left/right, and drift left/right. The actual action is caused
by controlling the direction/speed of the two motors (the two back wheels), thus causing a
turn.

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CHAPTER 3

3. Design and Implementation

Schematic
The schematic of the “Line Following Robot” is shown in the figure. The main
component is the Arduino Uno. Schematic is drawn by using Proteus.

The main features incorporated into the hardware are given below:
 Ardunio Uno.
 The IR-LED with IR illuminance, modified to be reflective sensor.
 The LM324 quad comparator IC.
 A potentiometer to calibrate the reference voltage.
 The H-bridge motor control IC (L293D)
 Motors, with coupled reduction gears.
 Connectors to join the different boards to form one functional device.
 A pair of IR-LED and Photodiode is used as proximity sensor for the designing
tachometer
Each of the hardware is dissected and was designed/implemented separately for their
functional and later incorporated as one whole application. This helped in the debugging
processes.

The schematic of the circuit is given in the next page.

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Arduino Working Logic

Thus totally the microcontroller gets 4 inputs from the sensor circuitry, to the (A3 – A0)
of Arduino to decide what to do when on the line. Below is the complete description
about what each input mean and what needs to be done [4].

Table 1: Arduino Working Logic

Input Output State In Action
(PWM)
A0 A1 A2 A3 9 10
0 0 0 0 255 255 All sensor in Go straight
position
1 0 0 0 255 191 Leftmost sensor is Move right
out of track.
1 1 0 0 255 127 Two sensor from Turn right
the left is out of
track
1 1 1 0 255 64 Three sensor from Sharp turn right
the left is out of
Track
0 0 0 1 191 255 Rightmost sensor is Move left
out of track
0 0 1 1 127 255 Two sensor from Turn left
the right is out of
track
0 1 1 1 64 255 Three sensor from Sharp turn left
the left is out of
Track
1 1 1 1 0 255 All sensor is out of Move circularly
track Until track is
detected

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Process Explanation
As shown in the data below, is a typical situation involved. At every sampled time the
commands executed by the Arduino is also shown. From the below figure, it should be
clear about the software requirements [5].

Sensor

Path

.Go Straight Move right for the right most condition

and move left for left most condition

Turn right for the rightmost condition Sharp turn right for the rightmost condition
and turn left for left most condition. and sharp turn left for left most condition.

Move circular until the line is traced down

Figure 3-2: Line Following Process

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Programming and Simulation

The program code acts as the decision-maker embedded in the micro-controller deciding
about the outputs for particular set of inputs. The program is coded using Arduino®
1.65.and is then compiled to form a “.hex” file which can then be burnt into the Arduino.
The output is also checked in simulation using Proteus® [6].

Flowchart.
The following chart shows implemented logic.

START

Initialize timer 0 to call interrupt every 5 seconds

Initialize counter.

L1= leftmost sensor, L2=left sensor, R1=

A
rightmost sensor, R2 = right sensor, T = techno
sensor

Yes GO STRAIGHT
Left motor = fullspeed
L1L2R1
Right motor=
R2=0000
fullspeed

No

SHARP TURN LEFT

L1L2R1 Yes
Right motor =
R2=0111 fullspeed
leftt motor = slowest
D
No
SHARP TURN
RIGHT
L1L2R1 Yes
Right motor = slowest
R2=1110
Left motor =fullspeed

No
TURN LEFT
Left motor = slower
Right motor = C
L1L2R1R
Yes
2=0011 fullspeed

NO
B
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TURN RIGHT
Yes Left motor = fullspeed
L1L2R
1R2=11 Right motor=slower C

No

Yes MOVE LEFT

Left motor = slow
L1L2R1
Right motor
R2=000
=fullspeed
No

D
MOVE CIRCULAR
L1L2R1 Yes Left Motor =
R2=1111 fullspeed
RightMotor = off
No

Techo Yes
Increase counter by 1.
=1

No

RETURN
A

Timer = 5second D
No ?
Yes

Interrupt Occurs
Distance = Distance+2*π*radius of wheel Return to
position where
interrupt occur
Display Distance

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Summary
The logic behind the working of Arduino is to analyses the input from the sensor
according to program fed to it and provide corresponding output to the motor driver
which finally drive the motor in such way that, it produce required motion.
The differential steering system is implemented to turn the robot. In this system, each
back wheel has a dedicated motor while the front wheels are free to rotate. To move in a
straight line, both the motors are given the same voltage. To manage a turn of different
sharpness, the motor on the side of the turn required is given lesser voltage as level of
steering required.

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CHAPTER 4

Kinematics of the Robot

The backbone of our design is the differential steering system which is familiar
from ordinary life because it is the arrangement used in a wheelchair. Two wheels
mounted on a single axis are independently powered and controlled, thus providing both
drive and steering. Additional passive wheels (usually casters) are provided for support.
Most of us have an intuitive grasp of the basic behavior of a differential steering system. If
both drive wheels turn in tandem, the robot moves in a straight line. If one wheel turns
faster than the other, the robot follows a curved path. If the wheels turn at equal speed, but
in opposite directions, the robot pivots [7].

Figure 5.5-1: The Differential steering model

𝑆𝐿 = 𝑟𝜃
𝑆𝑅 = (𝑟 +
𝑏)𝜃

𝑆𝑀 = (𝑟 + 𝑏) 𝜃
2

Where SL and SR give the displacement for the left and right wheels respectively, r is the
turning radius. b is the distance between wheel, and 𝜃 is the angle of turn. SM is the
speed at the center point as the main axle.

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Mechanical Design
The chassis of the robot is made up of the acrylic glass since it can carry more
load and have lighter in weight.
The detail orthographic projection of the robot is drawn at the appendix.

Design of Path
The path consists of three U-turns of different radii. Among three, the system
swiftly turn two U-turn and it goes out of track in one initial U-turn and retrace its path.

Figure 5-2: Path of the Line Following Robot

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Picture of Line Following Robot

The picture of the line following robot is captured by the still camera at some
angle and shown below.

Figure 5-3: Top View of the Line following Robot

Figure 5-4: Side View of the Line Followinng Robot.

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Turning Radius
The turning radius of a vehicle is the radius of the smallest circular turn (i.e. U-
turn) that the vehicle is capable of making. The term ‘turning radius’ is a technical term
that is commonly used to mean the full diameter of the smallest circle, but in technical
usage the turning radius still is used to denote the radius.
Calculation:
The total length of the robot car is 172mm (approx. 17.2mm.) the minimum turning
radius that it can turn sharply.

The diagram in which robot car is making a turn. The situation is show in the figure
above. The wheels are shown shaded in the figure. The front wheel’s center is P and the
rear wheel’s center is Q. Let O be the center of the circle, along whose circumference the
car moves. Let L=PQ be the length of the car and let R be the radius of the circle.
Sharpest turn corresponds to smallest possible value of R. Note that PQ is a chord of the
circle. Let us say that the front wheel can rotate at most by an angle w relative to the
‘straight’ position. For triangle OPQ [11].
u + 2v = 1800 (1)
also, w + v = 900 (2)
From, cosine rule for OPQ:
L2 = R2 + R2 – 2R2 cos(u) (3)
From eqn (1), (2) and (3)

𝑅=
𝐿
2𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑤

At the maximum value of sin i.e. 1, The turning radius is found to be L/2 = 87.2mm.

Now, the velocity of the automobile is the prime factor to determine the ability to take
turn smoothly or not. So we have to derive the relation between the turning radius and the

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velocity of the robot car.

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Turning Radius(r) = 100mm.

Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81m/s2 = 9.81×100
mm/s2 Velocity (v) =?
Coefficient of friction between rubber and cardboard (µ) = 0.07 [11]
v = √µ𝑟𝑔
= √0.07 × 8.75 × 9810
= 245.20mm/s = 24.52cm/s
Which is attained at the speed of 1.4rps (or, 84 rpm).

3.2. Cost Estimation

The details of price of components used in project is given below.
Table 4: Details of Price of components
S.N. Particulars Quantity Rate per item(NRs.) Total(NRs.)
1 Arduino 1 2000 2000
2 Chassis 1 150 150
3 Motor 2 500 1000
4 Rear Wheel 2 100 200
5 Front Wheel 1 150 150
6 LCD 1 450 450
7 Motor Driver 1 350 350
8 Jumper Wire 20 10 200
9 Photodiode 5 30 150
10 IR LED 5 15 75
11 LM 358 1 80 80
12 LM 7805 1 45 45
13 AAA Battery 4 15 60
14 9V Battery 1 80 80
15 Battery Holder 1 50 50
16 Switches 1 5 5
17 Miscellaneous 1000
Total 6045
Hence, the product is finalized in NRs. 6045 excluding the labor cost.

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Summary
The main criteria of the mechanical design is mainly depends upon the differential
steering mechanism, turning radius. The calculation of turning radius is necessary because
it finds out the mechanical limitation for the types of the curve which is avoided. The
turning radius for the design is found to be 100mm.
So, in case of designing path the maximum turning radius mustn’t be less than 100mm.

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CHAPTER 5

4. Result and Analysis

The practical analysis of the components and the mathematical calculation is
performed at different stage.
Dc motor are most easy for controlling. One dc motor has two signals for its
operation. Reversing the polarity of the power supply across it can be change the direction
required. Speed can be varied by varying the voltage across the motor. The Dc motor
don’t have enough torque to drive the robot directly. So in order to solve the problem the
dc gear motor is which increase the torque of the dc motor in the expense of the speed.

Mathematical Interpretation:
Rotational power (Pr) is given by:
Pr= Torque (T) X Rotational Speed
𝑝𝑟
Γ=
(ω)

𝜔
Pr is constant for DC motor for a constant input electrical power. Thus torque (T) is

1
inversely proportional speed (ω)

Γ≁
𝜔

Speed Control
The speed of the dc motor is control by feeding PWM from Arduino to the enable
pin of the L293D which change the voltage across the motor. Due to which speed is also
decreased. On the command over the speed and the direction is also controlled.

4.2.1. PWM Speed Control

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Calculation:
𝑡𝑜𝑛
A= 𝑉𝑑𝑡
1
∫
0

𝑡𝑜𝑛
A= 12𝑑𝑡
1
∫
0

𝐴 = 12
𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝐴 = 12 × 𝜌

Where ρ is the duty cycle of the PWM control signal; this shows that by varying the duty
cycle of the PWM control, we effectively vary the DC voltage supplied to the motors,
thus controlling their speed. This is generated by the arduino built-in hardware [9].

Practical Result Analysis

Here the motor is tested under all condition in the lab. The reading of the motor RPM
and the voltage across it is illustrated below. Inertia is neglected.

Table 2: Analysis of effect of PWM on RPM of Motor

Duty cycle (ρ) Voltage Across Motor RPM
0% 0 0
25% 3 16
50% 6 29
75% 9 45
100% 12 58

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Digital Revolution Counter

A Digital RPM counter is a measuring instrument which can measure the number
of a rotation machine digitally. The similar concept is used in instrument called
“Tachometer”. It is an important measuring device in the field of electrical engineering &
widely used in industries and laboratorial work. IR- Pair is the heart of the system which
found the number of revolution. It works by detecting the black spot in the wheel and
transfer digital high to the arduino.[10]

Calculation
The system is designed in such way that it updates the distance value in every 5 seconds.
i.e. 12 times per minute.

Practical Result Analysis

Here the build revolution counter is used as Tachometer tested under all
conditionon in the lab with reference of standard Tachometer. The reading of the motor
RPM is illustrated below.

Table 3: Comparison between standard Tachometer and Build Tachometer

Voltage RPM RPM Percentage
Across Motor (Standard Tachometer) (Build Tachometer) Error
3 70 75 6.25%
6 120 132 9.3%
9 184 173 6.67%
12 258 235 10.4%
15 330 284 12.4%

Summary
Pulse Width Modulation, or PWM, is a technique for getting analog results with
digital means. Digital control is used to create a square wave, a signal switched between
on and off. This on-off pattern can simulate voltages in between full on (5 Volts) and off
(0 Volts) by changing the portion of the time the signal spends on versus the time that the
signal spends off. The duration of "on time" is called the pulse width. To get varying
analog values, change or modulate that pulse width.
Since, the build tachometer can be used, as from the analysis the error percentage within
limit, for the maximum rpm is to be measured i.e. 250 rpm.

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CHAPTER 6

ADVANTAGES:-
1) These types of robot movement are usually automatic.
2) The system in the robot is like once install and forget.
3) Its relatively cheap.
4) This type of robot are simple to build.
5) They can also be used for long distance.

APPLICATION:-
1) They can be used in industries as automated
equipment carriers.
2) It can be used for home for floor cleaning etc.
3) In hotels they are being used for the transfer of things from one
place to another following a straight path.

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CHAPTER 7

6.1. Conclusion
The line following robot is automobile system that has ability to recognize its path,
move and change the robot's position toward the line in the best way to remain in track.
This project report presents a photodiode sensor based line follower robot design of
200gm weigh which always directs along the black line on white surface. The electro
mechanical robot dimension is 192×100×70 mm3 with max rpm 180 at no load and
frictionless condition. The minimum turning radius for the system is 100mm at velocity
of 24.2 cm/s. The robot is able to detect its path in case it is out of path.

The line following robot project challenged the group to cooperate, communicate, and
expand understanding of electronics, mechanical systems, and their integration with
programming. The successful completion of every task demonstrated the potential of
mechatronic systems and a positive group dynamic.

6.2. Future Scope

In the process of development of the line follower, most of the useful feature is
identified and many of them was implemented. But due to the time limitations and other
factor some of these cannot be added.
So the development features in brief:
 Use of color sensor.
 Use of ccd camera for better reconigsation and precise tracking the path.

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GANTT CHART

Table 5: Gantt chart

Task Dec Jan Feb March April May June

2022
2021 2022 2022 2022 2022 2022

Study of possible project

Project Title Selection

Literature Review

Proposal Writing And

Defense
Circuit design and
implementation of the circuit
Mid-Term Report

Hardware and PCB

development

Testing and evaluation of the

system

Work Accomplished

Work Remaining

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REFERENCE
[1] B. Klaus and P. Horn, Robot Vision. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.

[2]J. Warren, J. Adams and H. Molle, "Arduino for Robotics," in Arduino Robotics,
New York, Apress publiction, 2014, pp. 51-83.

[3]Jim, "PWM/PID/Servo Motor Control," 2005. [Online]. Available: http://www.uoxray

uoregon.edu.

[4]Komonya, S. Tachi, K. Tanie, "A Method for Autonomous Locomotion of .Mobile

Robots,''in Journal of Robotics Society of Japan, vol. 2, pp.222-231, 1984.

[5]S. Monk, Programming Arduino Getting Started with Sketches, New Delhi, India: Tata
Macgrawhill, 2012.

[6]Open Source community, " Open Source Sketch," January 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Guide/Introduction.

[7] A. Parsad, "Line Following Robot,"Dept. Elex. & Comm. Eng., Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Banglore, India, 2005

[8]S. Bhatia, "Engineering garage," 23 May 2011. [Online]. Available:

http://www.engineersgarage.com//tachometer-microcontroller-circuit-project.

[9]S. Debopath and Md. Jinnah, "Digital RPM meter using Arduino,"Dept.
Elect.Eng., Ahsanullah Univ. of Sci. & Tech., Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.

[10] Zin, "Alldatasheet," March 2003. [Online]. Available:

http://www.alldatasheet.com

[11] Wordpress"Turning radius of the Car," July 2013 [Online]. Available:

https://goodmaths.wordpress.com/2013/07/19/turning-radius-of-a-car

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