Chapter 2

Review of thermodynamics

Turbomachinery and gas turbines may be fully analyzed, to the degree reached in
this text, by rather simple thermodynamic relations. All are based on applications of
the first and second laws of thermodynamics to so-called "flow" systems. From these,
powerful and widely applicable tools such as the energy-enthalpy relations for various
components and the one-dimensional compressible-flow functions can be quickly and
easily derived.
The very simplicity of these tools can lead to their misuse. Serious errors can result
when a relation derived for incompressible flow is used for a high-Mach-number gas
stream, or when an isentropic-flow function is employed to relate upstream to downstream
conditions in frictional flow. Rigor is vital. We shall derive the significant relations from
first principles so that the conditions under which they may individually be used may be
fully understood. This review will also serve to establish a language and a system of
symbols that will be used in the remainder of the book.

2.1 The first law of thermodynamics

The law of conservation of energy is an axiom. Common experience and careful
experiments have shown that it generally holds, but it cannot be formally proved. In
words, it can be stated as: The energy passing into a given mass of material in a given
time is equal to the energy passing out of the material plus the energy stored within it.
The "mass of material" is any defined collection of molecules, whether solid, liquid, gas,
plasma, or a mixture of more than one of these phases.
Thermodynamic textbooks often refer to this selection of molecules as a "system".
There is no restriction on the form of the energy transfers (as work, heat, chemical,
etc., energy transfers); they may follow some ideal patterns, or they may be far from
ideal.
In symbols, the first law for a fixed mass of material A is written as follows (illustrated
in figure 2.1):
oq = dE A +ow (2.1)

4S
46 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

8q = dE + 8w

Figure 2.1. Energy flow and storage

where

8q(= Oqill) is the heat transferred in the process (positive for heat transfer
into the material);
d EA is the increase of energy level of the material inside the system A ,
termed the "internal" energy; and
ow(= oW ex ) is the work transferred out of the material to the surroundings
(positive for work done by the material on the surroundings).

The change in internal energy, dE A , includes all forms of energy storage, such as
kinetic, gravitational, elastic, electric, magnetic, and thermal. In the following discussion
we will give thermal-energy storage the special symbol du o
Of these quantities only E , the internal energy, is a property of the material. That
is, its value depends only on the state of the material and not on how that state was
reached. The energy transfers Oqill and oWex are not properties, and their values depend
absolutely on the processes used to attain the final state. That is why different symbols
are used for the differentials (0 and d). Later the apparently similar Gibbs ' equation will
be compared with this statement of the first law.
In many engineering examples there may be several identifiably different heat flows
and work transfers, and the material may be composed of parts having different internal
energies. The first law can be applied to the whole mass of material with the various
quantities summed algebraically, or to individual components.

The first law derived for a flow process

The above statement of the first law is useful for the analysis of, for instance, positive-
displacement machinery, because such devices (e.g., piston compressors) confine an iden-
tifiable mass of material within boundaries before undergoing various processes. It is less
applicable to turbomachinery, in which material (working fluid) crosses control-volume
boundaries.
We can easily adapt the first law to the material-crossing-boundary case, usually
known as a "flow" system, by modelling a device or a space in which a process takes
place in a box or "control volume". We can then look at the fixed boundaries around a
defined mass of material (usually a fluid) as it moves into and out of the control volume.
Mass and energy flow rates are considered at the inlets and outlets of the control volume,
as well as energy flow rates through the surface of the control volume in some increment
of time ot.
For simplicity we shall consider a control volume with a single inlet (station 1) and a
single outlet flow (station 2), each using a duct of constant diameter (figure 2.2). Using
Sec. 2.1. The first law of thermodynamics 47

A2
Pst, 2
Ust ,2
v st , 2

®
Control
volume "A"

dV •
C1 ~ =\{=o
dt

Zl

Datum

Figure 2.2. Energy flows for a steady stream of fluid passing through a control
volume

only two ports is not a necessary assumption, and using it results in no loss of generality.
Likewise, without loss of generality we shall consider only one of each heat transfer
rate entering (8qin/dt) and exiting (8qex/dt) the control volume, and one of each power
transfer entering (8Win /dt) and exiting (8w ex /dt) the control volume.
For flow-process control volumes we have to take into account not only heat and
work transfers through the surfaces of the control volume, but also the various categories
of energy that the material takes with it as it passes through the inlets and outlets of
the control volume. One of these categories of energy is kinetic (the effect of high
flow velocity as material passes through the ports). Another category accounts for the
displacement of mass through the port at pressure p . Another category accounts for
potential-energy changes between ports due to changes of elevation z with respect to
an arbitrary elevation level. There are of course other forms of energy, such as surface
tension, electromagnetic forces, etc., which should be included in general formulations,
but are seldom of significant influence in turbomachinery problems.
When applying energy balances to turbomachinery problems it is sometimes conve-
nient to add to the thermal-energy term the kinetic-energy term; and at other times it is
more convenient to add to the thermal-energy term the kinetic-energy and the potential-
energy term, evaluated from an arbitrary elevation level. This leads to the definition
of what are known as "static", "stagnation", and "total" properties, as explained further
below.
We shall henceforth use the subscript st ("static") to denote property values that
do not include the effects of kinetic-energy or potential-energy terms, the subscript 0
("stagnation") to denote property values that include the effects of kinetic energy but
do not include the effects of potential energy, and the subscript T ("total") to denote
property values that include the effects of kinetic energy as well as potential energy. The
48 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

following examples illustrate when it is convenient to use each one of these types of
properties.
At any flow station with appreciable area-averaged flow velocity C perpendicular to
the flow area A, incompressible liquids have (constant) density P and temperature T
(corresponding to static conditions), the mass-flow rate is given by m = pAC, and the
fluid has different values of static, stagnation, and total pressure (Pst, Po and PT) . Perfect
or semi-perfect gases (defined below) have different static and stagnation temperatures,
pressures, and densities (T.,t. To, Pst. Po, Pst and Po), and the mass-flow rate is given by
m= Pst AC.
The energy categories that usually need to be accounted for at the inlets and outlets
of control volumes of turbomachinery problems are:

internal thermal energy 8m U st

kinetic energy 8m C 2 /(2ge)
potential energy 8m z g Ige
flow energy (the work of the fluid pushing an incremental volume of material
into the control volume against the static pressure) Pst A8x = 8m Vst Pst

where

8m is the mass of material passing into or out of the control volume in time
81
C is the velocity of the material
ge is a unit-matching constant in Newton's law (gc - 1 for SI and other
"consistent" systems of units I)
Z is height above a datum
Vst static specific volume (i.e., measured at the speed of the flowing materi-
als), where Vst is the reciprocal of static density Pst
Pst is static pressure

Thus, if we exclude other energy forms such as chemical energy, electromagnetic

forces, surface tension, etc., and we use the symbol U for the more restricted internal
thermal energy, the change of energy 8 E associated with mass 8m of fluid passing through
an inlet or an outlet of the control volume (figure 2.2) is given by

C2
8E=8m ( Ust+PstVs t+ - + -
gz) (2.2)
2gc ge

Accounting for the heat and work flows, and the inlet and outlet flows of system A,
shown in figure 2.2, with energy EA and volume VA in a region where the surrounding
(atmospheric) environmental pressure is Pen at any time, the first law (energy balance)

I In Newton's law. force = (mass x acceleration)lgc , gc == I for SI and other "consistent" systems of units.
gc is useful for unit systems having the same units for mass and weight (at sea level), e.g., pounds-mass and
pounds-force (for which gc=32.IS [Ibm · ft]/[lbf· s2]) and kilograms-mass and kilograms-force (for which
g<.=9.S07 [kgm . m]/[kgf . s2]).
Sec. 2.1. The first law of thermodynamics 49

for the control volume becomes:

OWin OWex Oqin oqex
= ---+---
dt dt dt dt

+-d
dml (
Ust , J
ci +-
+ P st, I Vst , J+ -2 gZI)
t gc gc

-Tt
dm z (
U st , 2
C~ gZZ)
+ P st,Z Vs1, 2 + 2gc + & (2.3)

Equation 2,3 should be used whenever transients are of interest (such as transient
flow through a compressor or turbine, hot-air balloon races, charging and discharging
rigid or non-rigid vessels, etc,). For steady-flow processes m= dm/dt, Q = oq/dt, and
W = ow /dt , In practice turbomachinery components do not change volume with time
(VA = 0), Also, the characteristic response time of the flow in turbomachinery is usually
orders of magnitude shorter than the characteristic time of the overall transient problem
(Korakianitis et al., 1994), so that most transients encountered can be defined as "slow",
That is, most cases may be analyzed by examining a series of steady-state conditions, in
which there is no storage of mass or energy inside the control volume (dmA/dt = 0, or
m] = mz).
Therefore the energy flows into and out of the control volume in steady flow can be
equated, and the steady-flow form of equation 2.3 becomes:

.
Wex
,
+ Qex C~
+ m 2 ( Ust , 2 + P st,ZVst,2 + -2 gZ2)
+-
gc gc

=
. + Qin
"'in
. +m]. (Ust , ] + P st , ]Vst , J + -2
Ci +-
gZ]) (2.4)
gc gc
This is known as the "steady-flow energy equation", (SFEE). If there is only one inlet
and one outlet flow port, as in figure 2,2, then the mass flow rate is m= mJ = mz. The
SFEE has very wide usefulness for the analysis of turbomachinery and associated steady-
flow processes. Some examples of its use are given below. It is convenient to simplify
equation 2.4 by defining the property enthalpy, mostly used for gas flows (compressors,
gas turbines), and stagnation pressure, mostly used for liquid flows (hydraulic machinery).

Enthalpy
The static properties in (ust + P stVsr) are properties of the material at a given point.
Properties, by definition, are functions only of the thermodynamic state of the material.
This uniqueness means that new, unique, properties can be formed from any combination
of other properties. It is obviously convenient to define U st + P s t Vst as one property. It
is given the name "static enthalpy" and the symbol h st :

h s/ == Ust + P st Vst (2.5)

While pressure and volume can be defined in terms of measurable length and force
quantities, the internal thermal energy, and therefore the enthalpy, can be measured only
50 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

from a defined datum state. Different tables often use different datum states. When using
two sets of data to cover widely differing states, one must take care that they have the
same datum or base state.
The steady-flow energy equation incorporating this "new" property, enthalpy, is
written
gz)
. . . . 2
Qin + Win ~ Qex - Wex = fli (h st + £+ (2.6)
m 2gc gc
where the fl operator implies that the difference of the quantity in parentheses should be
taken from outlet station 2 to inlet station 1.
The enthalpy has the subscript sf because, as mentioned previously, it is the value
for so-called "static" or "stream" conditions. These are the conditions measured with
instruments that are "static" or stationary with respect to the fluid . It is diffic ult to
measure static properties (pressure and temperature) in high-speed flow s. The stagnation
properties are more easily measured by means of upstream-facing "Pi tot" or "stagnation"
probes, shielded to reduce heat transfer by radiation and conduction (figure 2.3). The
steady-flow energy equation can be written for conditions (1) upstream and (2) within
a stagnation probe, assuming that the velocity of flow within the probe is vanishingly
small, that is C2 ~ 0:

Qin + Win - Qex - Wex

.=..:.~-~-...:...;.~--=O=
gZ2) -
( hst,2+0+- cf gZI)
(hst,I+-+- (2.7)
~ & ~ &
If the streamline is horizontal 22 = 2\. Let us give the stagnation enthalpy the suffix
0, ho:
(2.8)

or in general, at any flow station

(2.9)

We shall henceforth distinguish between stagnation and static conditions, using appro-
priate subscripts, except in those circumstances where all properties are of the same type.
Where motion is slow, for instance, the static properties equal the stagnation properties.
And in dealing with the relationships of a thermodynamic cycle, stagnation conditions
should be used throughout.

Figure 2.3. Isentropic flow into a Pitot tube

Sec. 2.1. The first law of thermodynamics 51

Using this definition, we can write the steady-flow energy equation as:

(2.10)

In air and gas turbomachinery, changes of height have a negligible effect on the
enthalpy change, and this general form of the steady-flow energy equation can be ap-
proximated by:

Qin + W;1l - Qex - Wex 2

----m-.---- = ~l (h o) = hO,2 - h o, I (2.11)

The steady-flow energy equation (SFEE) is usually simplified for most of the com-
ponents of plants incorporating turbomachinery. This is because some are virtually ther-
mally isolated, so that the heat transfer is negligible and the process undergone is adi-
abatic (Qill = Qex = Q = 0), for instance, compressors, pumps, and turbines. In
other turbomachinery components there is considerable heat transfer but no work transfer
(W = 0), for instance, boilers, combustion chambers, and heat exchangers. In yet other
turbomachinery components there is neither heat transfer nor work transfer, as in nozzles,
throttles, diffusers, and ducts. Table 2.1 summarizes how the SFEE, equation 2.4, is used
in components with gas, vapor, or liquid, and how the restricted SFEE, equation 2.11, is
used in components with gas, vapor, or liquid in horizontal flow.
Use of the SFEE is especially convenient for steady-flow devices that have gases
as their working fluids, because over a range of commonly encountered pressures, the
enthalpy of gases at ranges well above their critical temperatures is a function of tem-
perature only. Tabulated data, such as those in Gas Tables by Keenan and Kaye (1983),

Table 2.1. Applicability of the steady-flow energy equation

W Q ~Tho
Nozzles 0 0 0
Valves 0 0 0
Throttles 0 0 0
Ducts, pipes, diffusers 0 0 0
Boilers 0 Qifl/ m
Heat exchangers 0 Q/m
Combustion chambers 0 Qill/ m
Compressors, pumps, etc. O(?*) Win/fir
Turbines O(?*) Wex /m
• The queries are entered because in special cases there is substantial heat transfer in compressors and turbines.
Compressors may incorporate intercoolers. Turbine blades, disks and duct walls may incorporate cooling
circuits. Reheat combustors can be used between turbine stages or groups of stages.
52 Ch . 2. Review of thermodynamics

give enthalpies for air and other common gases as functions only of temperature for "low
pressures". Comparison with the only high-pressure data available when the tables were
originally published (1948) confirms that the tabulated values are fully valid for pressures
up to 1.4 MPa (200 psia) and that "the characteristics of the isentropic as given by ta-
ble 1 [of the Gas Tables] are suitable for precise work even to pressures in the hundreds
of pounds per square inch" (quoted from the appendix of the 1948 edition). For the
examples and problems in this book we use the simple table of temperature-dependent
properties of air (table A.1) and the correlations of the properties of air and of combustion
products given in appendix A.

Energy equation for liquid flow

For machinery working with liquids, such as hydraulic turbines and pumps, the SFEE
form of equation 2.11 is not useful because the enthalpy cannot easily be measured. It
is more useful to return to the original form of the SFEE (equation 2.4), and to form
different groups of the energy terms. Typically for machines working with liquids the
stagnation pressure Po is derived from equation 2.9 for incompressible (constant specific
volume v or density p) fluids only, and for lossless deceleration of the flow to stagnation
conditions:
c2 pC2
Po = Pst + -2- = Pst + - 2 (2.12)
vgc gc
Note that this equation relating static to stagnation pressure is valid for liquids only (see
example on pump losses in section 2.4) and cannot be used for gases with acceptable
accuracy except at low Mach numbers. For high Mach numbers the compressible-flow
functions developed below (equation 2.61-2 developed in section 2.5) must be used (see
example on compressor losses in section 2.4). Also, incompressible fluid means that
there is only one value of density or specific volume, corresponding to static properties.
For liquid machines the total pressure PT is defined as the stagnation pressure Po plus
the elevation head:
pC 2 pg z pg z
PT = Pst + -- + - = Po + - (2.13)
2gc gc gc
The SFEE (equation 2.4) can be written as:

(2.14)

For a given left-hand side the losses in a pump result in unwanted internal-energy in-
creases (~U s t) due to friction that reduce the total-pressure increase on the right-hand
side. Similarly for a given total-pressure drop the losses in a water turbine result in
unwanted internal-energy increases (~Ust) due to friction that reduce the work output of
the turbine. Because of the large specific heat capacity of most liquids, these internal-
energy increases result in small but finite temperature increases in both pumps and liquid
turbines.
Sec. 2.1. The first law of thermodynamics 53

It is usually more convenient to express the pressures as heads of liquid (from p =

pgH/g c = (H/v)(g/gc»:

(lin + Win ~ (lex - Wex = ~i (Usr) + ~i (HOg) + ~i (gz) (2.15)

m gc gc
Consider a hydraulic turbine working between two reservoirs, with the head measure-
ments shown in figure 2.4. In applying this form of the SFEE, we can assume that the
heat transfer will be negligible. But we cannot assume that the change of internal energy
will be negligible. In fact, the change of temperature of the water will be extremely
small (usually measured in hundredths of a degree Celsius) but this change of internal
energy is a consequence of the frictional losses in the feedpipe and the turbine itself. In
large hydraulic turbines, where the measurement of the mass flow and power output is
difficult, efficiency measurements are often based on the precise measurement of these
very small increases in water temperature.
Therefore the change of total head across a hydraulic turbine is not analogous to
the change of stagnation enthalpy. The change of stagnation enthalpy (together with the
change of potential energy, if applicable) represents the actual work output of the turbine
rotor in all cases, however poor the efficiency of the machine. In the absence of friction
the change of total head gives the ideal work output per unit mass.
This concept may be better understood by reducing the case to the limiting one of a
turbine so lossy that it gives no work at all. It would in this case be precisely similar to
a throttle valve. There would be no change of enthalpy across it, but there would be a
large change in total head.
In the general case the work output of the hydraulic turbine is then

Wex =
-.- [(Ho, I + Zl) - (Ho,2 + Z2) ] -g - (U s /,2 - Ust , I) (2.16)
m gc

UPPER RESERVOIR

, , RESERVOIR
,' LOWER , , , ,
Figure 2.4. Hydraulic-turbine heads
54 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

or, in words: [actual specific work] = [ideal specific work] - [losses]. The units of
specific work are in SI units (and British-U.S. units) Joules per kilogram (and British
thermal units per pound-mass) or kilowatts per kilogram per second (and horsepower per
pound-mass per second): kJ/kg (and Btullbm); or kW/(kg/s) (and hp/(lbrn/s)).

2.2 Examples of the use of the SFEE

Gas-turbine expander
A gas-turbine expander is measured on test to be passing 84 kg/s of combustion
products of known mean specific heat capacity at constant pressure 1,130 J/(kg . K).
What is the shaft power output if the mean inlet temperature is 1,250 °C and the mean
exhaust temperature is 550 °C, both measured with stagnation probes?
For gases, the changes in enthalpy between two temperatures can be calculated from
the change in temperature multiplied by the mean specific heat at constant pressure
between those two temperatures (see equation 2.44 below). Therefore

mt.iho = mCpt.iTo
= 84 kg x 1,130_J _ x 0 , 250 - 550)K
s kg· K
66.44 X 106 J/ s = 66.44 MW

(degrees Kelvin [K] =degrees Celsius [0C] for temperature differences).

Air compressor
We are giving two examples of the use of enthalpy tables in British-U.S. units. Most
other examples, and the property data in appendix A, tables A.I and A.2, are given in SI
units.
What will be the outlet stagnation temperature of an air compressor taking in 25 lbrn/s
of atmospheric air at 72.3 OF and absorbing I , 950 hp?
From the 1948 version of the Gas Tables, table 1, the inlet stagnation enthalpy is
127.14 Btu/lbm. The work input per pound is

950h 550 ft . lbf h Btu s

1, Px s . p x 778 ft . lbf x 25 Ibm = 55. 14~:
Then the outlet stagnation enthalpy is (127.14 + 55.14) = 182.28 Btu/lbm. This
corresponds in table I of the Gas Tables to an outlet stagnation temperature of 760.8 OR
= 301.1 oF.
In these two examples of the application of the SFEE, we are unconcerned with the
efficiency of the internal processes, except that we should know the destination of the
bearing, seal, and windage (disk friction, etc.) losses. If the power is measured at the
machine shaft, and if the machine is sufficiently well insulated so that the friction losses
go to increasing the enthalpy of the working fluid, the use of the SFEE is correct. It is
Sec. 2.3. The second law of thermodynamics 55

also correct if the power is that at the rotor blading and if the friction losses are ducted
away in oil drains and ventilation ducts, external to the working fluid. When none of
these situations applies, a correction must be made for the additional energy transfer
across the control-volume boundaries.

Intercooler
Find the energy loss in the air passing into an air-compressor intercooler at 50 psia,
650 OR, and leaving at 550 OR. There is a stagnation-pressure loss in the air of 10 psi.
The air mass flow is 10 Ibm/s.
Application of the SFEE, equation 2.11, gives:

Qex = m(hO,l - h o,2)

The mass flow rate is m = 10 Ibm/s, and from the Gas Tables ho, I = 155.50 Btullbm
and hO,2 = 131.46 Btullbm. Therefore the energy loss, or simply the heat transferred
out, Qex is 240.4 Btu/s.
The pressure losses do not enter the energy-loss calculation. The pressure drop does
not constitute a loss of energy. It produces a drop in thermodynamic availability (meaning
that the air would be able to give less work in expansion to ambient pressure through
a thermodynamically ideal engine than if there were no pressure drop). Available work
is a second-law concern, and the SFEE is strictly a first-law, conservation-of-energy,
expression. Pressure losses, even to the extent of throttling of the flow, do not produce
energy losses.

2.3 The second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics is the second principal postulate upon which the
science is based. It is known in many forms that are corollaries of one another. The
most popular, perhaps, is, Heat cannot pass from a cooler to a warmer body without the
expenditure of work.
Although this seems a straightforward statement, it requires an understanding of tem-
perature. In the early days of modem science there was much confusion between tem-
perature and heat. As we have not yet defined temperature, we shall start with what
might seem a more abstruse statement, yet which in fact requires a smaller degree of
intellectual faith: that interacting bodies can approach a state of equilibrium. We shall
present a simplified and compressed treatment of the statistical development given in
such texts as Reynolds' Thermodynamics (1968).
Matter consists of molecules and atoms, which are themselves composed of many el-
ementary particles. The particles have various forms of energy, and continually exchange
energy in quanta with interacting particles. In gases, these interactions occur principally
through collisions.
Consider an assembly of particles, each of which can exist in any of several energy
states. Suppose that somehow (the physicist James Clerk Maxwell conceived of a "de-
mon" that could manipulate molecules) one could force them all into their mean energy
56 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

states and then release them to interact. Rapidly the assembly would progress from a state
of complete order (uniformity) to a state of maximum disorder. The second law states
simply that this process from order to disorder, from disequilibrium to equilibrium, oc-
curs. (As a simple analogy, consider an assembly of dice, each with faces of six different
colors. At the start, all show the same color uppermost. Then the dice are thrown, one
at a time, in a random sequence. The state of the assembly-the "macro-state"-would
proceed from order to disorder, from maximum disequilibrium to maximum equilibrium.)
We could conceptually quantify the approach to equilibrium by calculating the number
of ways the particles could be arranged among the "microstates" to give the "macrostate"
of the assembly. Let us call this number Q. When the particles are all at the identical
(mean-energy) microstate, there is only one way the particles can be arranged, since they
are all identical, and that number is 1. As equilibrium is approached, the number becomes
extremely large, even for a very small collection of particles (figure 2.5).
If two collections or assemblies of particles, A and B, are allowed to interact, the
new number of ways the combined macrostate C could be arranged is the product of the
number of ways A and B could individually be arranged:

(2.17)

It is more appropriate that this measure of disorder of the combined system should
be the sum, rather than the product, of the "disorders" of the constituents, and that the
numbers be smaller than they would otherwise be for realistic collections of molecules.
We therefore define an "extensive" property (one that is proportional to the mass of the
system) S, which we call entropy, for reasons which will be more obvious later, and
which is proportional to the logarithm of Q:

S == K InQ (2.18)

100 u -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - '

TIME - - -

Figure 2.5. Approach to equilibrium

Sec. 2.3. The second law of thermodynamics 57

Therefore
(2.19)
and
(2.20)
It is more rigorous to define entropy as the time average of K lnf:?. This overcomes
to some extent the major objection to this model, which is that it could allow the entropy
of an isolated assembly to decrease occasionally even though the general direction of the
approach to equilibrium is for the entropy to increase. But to decrease through even one
interaction would contravene the second law, which can be restated: The entropy of an
isolated assembly must increase or in the limit remain constant.

Derivation of Gibbs' equation

We use the model just described to consider two bodies, or assemblies of particles,
brought into thermal contact and allowed to reach equilibrium by exchange of heat (fig-
ure 2.6). They are isolated from the surroundings, and they are not allowed to perform
work upon each other. We define (or choose) these assemblies to be "simple" substances,
which by definition means that the state is fixed by any two independent, intensive prop-
erties. (Thus dry air at normal temperatures and pressures can be modelled as a simple
substance, while an ionized gas or a mixture of reacting substances is not. Gibbs' equation
requires additional terms for increased degrees of freedom.)
Because entropy is a property the entropy of each assembly A and B and of the
combined assembly C, it can be stated as a function of any two other properties. It
is convenient to use the internal energy, u, and the specific volume, v. We shall deal
with quasi-stationary states and omit subscripts differentiating "static" from "stagnation"
because (at negligible velocity) they will be identical:
s=S(u , V) (2.21)
Therefore
dS = (as)
au v
du + (as)
av u
dv (2.22)

Also
Sc = SA + SB (2.23)
dSc = dS A + dS B (2.24)

(2.25)

Figure 2.6. A thermal interaction to equilibrium

S8 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

At equilibrium, dSc = O. Because no work interaction has been allowed, dVA

= dVB = O. A and B will have increased and decreased their internal energies by the
amount of heat transferred 8q , so that

dUA = -dUB = 8q
Equation 2.25 then simplifies to

(2.26)

where we have used lower-case s for "specific entropy", or entropy per unit mass.
This, then, is the condition for thermal equilibrium. We can define this condition as
one in which the temperatures of the two assemblies are equal. We could in fact define the
quantities in equation 2.26 as thermodynamic temperature. The result, however, would
be the inverse of what we commonly call temperature. Therefore we make the following
definition:

T= (as/au)v = (::) v (2.27)

We now incorporate this definition into equation 2.26 and apply it to a second in-
teraction between the assemblies A and B in which we allow the common boundary to
move by an increase in the volume of, say, A and an equal decrease in the volume of B,
while maintaining thermal equilibrium, until pressure equilibrium has been attained:

(2.28)

At equilibrium, by arguments similar to those already made,

TB
= -dUB
= -dVB
dS c 0

Then equation 2.28 reduces to

(2.29)

This condition applies for equality of pressure, and of temperature, for the two as-
semblies. The quantities in equation 2.29 have the dimensions of pressure divided by
temperature and are given that definition:

(2.30)
Sec. 2.3. The second law of thermodynamics 59

Incorporating this definition, equation 2.28 becomes the Gibbs' equation for a simple
substance in the absence of energy storage due to motion, gravity, electricity, magnetism,
and capillarity:
Tds=du+pdv (2.31)

We shall refer to these restrictions as "simple circumstances".

Comparison of Gibbs' equation with the first law

Gibbs' equation has some similarities with the first law written for the same circum-
stances as equation 2.31 and is often confused for it. Gibbs' equation:

Tds = du + pdv
First law:
oq = du +ow
Gibbs' equation applies to any change, ideal or not: its only restriction is that it must
apply to a simple substance. It is composed entirely of properties or changes in property
values.
The first-law equation applies to a defined collection of material but is otherwise
generally applicable. It includes only one property, duo The quantities oq and ow are
dependent on the type of process undergone.
If one considers a thermodynamically reversible process in simple circumstances, one
can write for ow the work of a reversible process, equal to pdv. Then, by comparison
with Gibbs' equation, oq for a reversible process is Tds, and the equations are identical.
This discussion underscores the essential difference in application of the first and second
laws. The first law makes no condition about the type of process undergone, only about
the end states. The second law is concerned about the process, and allows the end state
to be predicted, given the initial state, or vice versa.
We examine process descriptions in the following derivations from Gibbs' equation.

The perfect- and semi-perfect-gas models

By definition a perfect gas 2 has constant values of specific heat capacities at constant
volume and constant pressure, C v and Cp respectively. By definition a semi-perfect gas
has specific heat capacities that are functions only of temperature, Cp = Cp(T) and
C v = Cv(T). Both perfect and semi-perfect gases by definition obey the equation of

2Some thennodynamics texts define a perfect gas as one with constant specific-heat capacities, and an ideal
gas as one with heat capacities as functions of temperature. Other thennodynamics texts define perfect and
ideal gases exactly inversely. Both expressions, "perfect" and "ideal", imply perfection in some way. In this
text we define as perfect gas one with constant specific-heat capacities, and as semi-perfect gas (a "less than
perfect" gas) one with specific-heat capacities that are functions of temperature. Equation Cp - Cv = Rand
definition y == CplCv apply to both perfect and semi-perfect gases.
60 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

state:
m
pV = nfiT = - f i T = mRT
Mw
pv RT (2.32)
p = pRT

where n is the number of kmoles of the substance, fi is the "universal gas constant",
Mw is the molecular weight of the gas, and R = fi/ Mw is the "gas constant".
The universal gas constant is:
8, 3l3.219 Jjkmole/K (2.33)
1.98587 Btu/lbmole;oR
= 1,545.32 ft.lbf/lbmolet R

The molecular weight for dry air is Mw = 28.970 kg/kmole. Therefore the gas constant
for dry air is
R 286.96 J/kg/K (2.34)
= 0.068549 Btu/ lbmtR
= 53.32 ft.lbf/lbmt R

The above equation of state dictates that the specific internal energy and specific
enthalpy of perfect and semi-perfect gases also obey the following relations:

(2.35)
(2.36)

where the ratio of specific heats, y, is defined by:

C
y ==---..E. (2.37)
Cv
The definition of enthalpy h == u + pv implies dh = du + pdv + vdp, and the
equation of state pv = RT implies pdv + vdp = RdT . Gibbs' equation then leads to:
du + pdv = Tds dh - vdp
CvdT + RdT CpdT
(2.38)

Perfect and semi-perfect gases have a value of R == fi/M w . For perfect gases Rand
one other value of either Cp, Cv, or y specify the remaining two using Cv = Cp - R
and y == Cp/Cv. For semi-perfect gases Cp(T) is evaluated from temperature, and R
and Cp(T) are used to evaluate Cv(T) = Cp(T) - Rand y == Cp(T)/Cv(T).
Equations 2.31 and 2.33, and the the relation for the velocity of propagation of a
small pressure wave (a sound wave), a, through a fluid, are used (Keenan, 1970, pp.
96-105) to derive:
(2.39)
Sec. 2.3. The second law of thermodynamics 61

For a perfect gas vdp = RdT + CvdT - Tds, so that

v (~~)s = -p ~ -y RvT

(2.40)

where we have noted that the appropriate temperature is 'Fs/ for the actual speed of sound
a s/·
Models for semi-perfect gases usually give mathematical expressions for Cp as a
function of temperature (Cp(T)). For example such expressions for air and products of
combustion modeled as semi-perfect gases are given in Appendix A. All of the above
expressions are valid for both perfect and semi-perfect gases. For perfect gases one can
evaluate changes between two states as:
(2.41)
(2.42)
For semi-perfect gases the expressions are modified to:

U2 - UI = r
iT,
Tz
CvdT ~ C v(T2 - TI ) (2.43)

h2 - hI = (z CpdT ~ Cp (T2 - T\) (2.44)

iT,
where the integrals are exact. The expressions with Cv and Cp can also be exact with
appropriate choice of the values of the mean specific heats. However, it is conve-
nient to calculate the mean specific heat as the value at the mean temperature, given
by Cp = Cp«T] + T2)/2) and C v = C p - R, which results in a small error, hence the
approximations. In the remainder of the text we use this approximation: whenever Cp
is used for semi-perfect gases it implies the value of Cp evaluated at the average of the
two end-temperatures of the process.

Perfect-gas T -s and h-s diagrams

The enthalpy-entropy diagram is the most-used vehicle for illustrating and analyzing
turbomachinery. One reason for this is that the high-efficiency streamline flow and the
short fluid residence times reduce heat transfer to the level at which it can usually be
neglected. The work transfers are then given by the change of enthalpy from the steady-
flow energy equation (equation 2.4).
The ideal adiabatic process is isentropic, as can be seen from Gibbs' equation 2.31
and the first law written for an ideal, reversible process, as described earlier. Then, by
definition, Q = T ds = 0 for a reversible adiabatic process. Therefore ds = O.
In a perfect gas, enthalpy changes are proportional to temperature changes (equa-
tion 2.44), so that a temperature-entropy diagram may be used interchangeably with an
enthalpy-entropy (Mollier) diagram with only a scale change for the temperature axis.
62 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

Constant-pressure lines on the T -s diagram

The shape of the constant-pressure (and constant volume) lines on a temperature-
entropy diagram can be found from the definition of enthalpy h == u + pv, the perfect-gas
law (equation 2.33) and Gibbs' equation:

dh-vdp = Tds=du+pdv
Tds = CvdT + pdv (2.45)

Therefore the left- and right-hand sides of the above equation respectively lead to:

(2.46)

(2.47)

Equation 2.46 states that the slope of any constant-pressure line (isobar) is a function
only of temperature. (Cp for a perfect gas is constant. For a real gas it is a function
only of temperature for all normal pressures, table A.I.) The constant-pressure lines on
a T - s diagram are therefore identical, have an increasing slope with temperature, and
are displaced horizontally from one another (figure 2.7). They do not "diverge", as is
often stated; the T - s diagram of figure 2.8 (used in some textbooks) is wrong and
misleading. Similarly (equation 2.47) the slope of the constant-volume lines (isochors)
is a function only of temperature, but it is higher than that of the constant pressure lines
(because Cp > C v ).
The apparent virtue of assuming diverging rather than parallel constant-pressure lines
is that the temperature drop in a high-temperature expansion process between two pres-
sures can be larger than the temperature (and therefore the enthalpy) rise in the compres-
sion process between the same pressures. This inexactitude is not necessary, as will be
seen.

Isentropic work for compression and expansion processes

We wish to find the temperature rise for an isentropic process over a small pressure
rise. We use the same relations as before:

Tds CpdT - vdp

v RT
(2.48)
Cp pCp

The specific work done in a steady-flow compression or expansion process is dh,

which for a perfect gas is CpdT. The change in pressure 8p can be expressed as a
normalized pressure change 8p / p . Then

cpaT)
(- - -RT (2.49)
ap/p s
Sec. 2.3. The second law of thermodynamics 63

-
IJJ
a:
:::>
~
<t
a:
IJJ
c..
~
IJJ
~

ENTROPY, S

Figure 2.7. Slope of constant pressure lines on the T - s diagram

w
a::
:::>
~
<t
a::
w
c..
:E
w
~

ENTROPY,S
" ,

Figure 2.S. Incorrect representation of constant-pressure lines

64 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

The work required for an isentropic process between two pressure levels is therefore
proportional to the absolute temperature. An isentropic turbine expanding from 1, 500 K
(2, 700 oR, 2,240 OF) would produce five times the work required by an isentropic com-
pressor compressing from 300 K (540 oR, 80 OF) between the same pressure levels.

The second law derived for flow processes

The above statement of the second law "entropy of an isolated system must increase
or remain constant" applied to bulk flow systems such as the one shown in figure 2.2
is expressed as: [change of entropy within the control volume] = [entropy coming in]
- [entropy going out] + [entropy generated by irreversibility within the control volume].
The entropy flows in and out can be from flow through ports or from heat transfers at
corresponding temperatures. Losses due to imperfect processes (e.g., friction) within the
control volume appear as entropy generated by irreversibility within the control volume.
Therefore:
(2.50)

where ~n and Tex are the local temperatures at which heat transfers dqill and dqex occur,
and dSir is the entropy generated by irreversibility inside the control volume due to
losses.
For steady-flow and quasi-steady flow the corresponding "steady-flow entropy equa-

. +f - f
tion" (SFSE) is:

mS2 . +
Qex = ms) -Qin + S·ir (2.51)
T Tex T Tin
which, in words, states that the entropy transferred out of the control volume via bulk
flow through the ports or heat transfers is equal to the entropy transferred into the control
volume via bulk flow through the ports or heat transfers plus the entropy generated within
the control volume due to irreversibilities (losses).
The relationship between stagnation and static condition at any flow station is by
definition isentropic. Therefore changes in entropy th(S2 - s)) may be evaluated: either
by using stagnation properties at both 1 and 2; or by using static properties at both 1
and 2. For simple substances S2 - s) may be evaluated from tables. The entropy change
for an incompressible substance with constant density p and specific heat capacity C is
given by:
T2
= Cln-
S2 - S, (2.52)
T)
Gibbs' equation 2.31 and the equation of state for perfect and semi-perfect gases
lead to:
dh - vdp dT dp
ds C --R-
T P T P
du + pdv dT dv
ds C v T
- + R v- (2.53)
T
dh - vdp dv dp
ds = = C -+Cv -
T P v P
Sec. 2.4. Examples of the use of the SFEE and the SFSE 65

Therefore for a perfect gas the entropy change between any two states 1 and 2 is given
by anyone of:

T2 P2
S2 - sl C In- - Rln-
p TI PI

S2 - Sl = Cvln-
T2
+ Rln-
V2
(2.54)
TJ VI

S2 - s] = Cpln-
V2
+ Cv ln-
P2
VI PI

For a semi-perfect gas one may use equations 2.53 and integrate, or approximate the
entropy change with equations 2.54 with a suitably averaged value of Cp as described
above. (Cv is given by C v = Cp - R.)
If two states 1 and 2 are connected via an isentropic process, or if the flow between
two flow stations 1 and 2 is isentropic, then S2 - Sl = 0 and equations 2.54 lead to:
R I I
T2 (;~) c = (;~) [( Cpj R) -
p = (~~) [(CpjR) -I]
= l] (2.55)
T\
R R R
Tz
TJ
( ;~ ) C
p
= (~) C
v
= (~~) C
V

T2
TJ
(;~) 7 (;~r-J (~~r-I
= =

Since the relationship between stagnation and static conditions at any flow station is by
definition isentropic, the above equations also relate stagnation to static properties at any
location for perfect gases. For semi-perfect gases the above equation can be used as an
approximation, with average values of Cp and C v evaluated as described above. Therefore
for semi-perfect gases y is also a function of temperature (y = CplCv = Cpl(Cp - R)).

2.4 Examples of the use of the SFEE and the SFSE

66 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics
Sec. 2.4. Examples of the use of the SFEE and the SFSE 67

We as" ume that the compressor is adiabatic and receives work Wi". Application of the
SFEE between compressor inlet and outlet, flow station land 2, give:

W;,,/lizc = (11 0.2 - ho. I) = Cp ( To.2 - TO. l )

=} TO,2 = 459.76 K (460.86 K)
Cp = 1010 J/kg/K (1002.78 J/kgIK) [1002.11 J/kgIK)

The maximum stagnation pressure at compre sor outlet is attained by an isentropic com-
pressor, and it is found by applying equation 2.55 between stagnation conditions at compressor
inlet and outlet:
~
PO.2.mx = (TO'l ) R
Po,I To,I
=} Po.2.nu = 449.33 kPa [447.83 kPa]

If the actual stagnation pressure at compressor outlet is

PO,2 = 0.97Po, 2,nu = 435.85 kPa [434.40 kPa] ,

then the entropy generated by irreversibility in the compressor is given by the top expression
of equation 2.54 applied between stagnation conditions at compressor inlet and outlet:

S·iT / me
. SO. 2 - SO• • = Cp l n-r;-
To. 2
- R l n -PO.l
0. 1 PO. I
=> Sir = 162.5 WfK [162.51 W/K]

The stagnation conditions at the inlet are environmental, bur tbe corresponding static tem-
perature and static pressure are lower than the environmental levels. The tagnation temperature
at the outlet of an adiabatic compressor is determined by the power input into the compressor
and the mass-flow rate, and it is not affected by compressor inefficiencies. Given the amount
of power input into the compressor, the maximum tagnation pressure at the outlet is achieved
by an isentropic compressor. Compressor inefficiencies reduce the maximum attainable pres-
sure at compressor outlet, and generate entropy by irreversibility inside the compressor control
volume. This increases the entropy of the outgoing stream from SO.l to $0.2 (tbe entropy gen-
erated by irreversibil.iry inside the compressor leaves the control volume with the outgoing air
stream).

Example 2 Pump losses

An agricultural pump is operating in an environmental temperature 7;,,, = 300 K, pres-
ure P." = 100 kPa, and gravitational acceleration g = 9.8 m/s2. The pump is pumping
water from near the surface of a large lake (station I) which is at atmospheric tempera-
ture. The pump outlet ( tation 2) is at the same elevation as that of the lake water. A
pipe carries the water from station 2 to tation 3, the beginn.ing of an open conduil 10 m
above the lake level. At the outlet of the pipe the effective cross-sectional area is A 3 =
0.1 m 2 • and the corresponding mean velocity of the water is C3 = 2 mls. The pump in-
puts 187.16 kW to the water flow, and the total pressure at the pump outlet (station 2) is
68 Ch . 2. Review of thermodynamics
Sec. 2.5. Compressible-flow functions for a perfect gas 69

2.5 Compressible-flow functions for a perfect gas

Many flow problems in the design of turbomachinery involve the specification of the
stagnation pressure and temperature, Po and To , and either the absolute velocity C, or
the mass-flow rate iii and characteristic area A . If the Mach number can be found, all
the actual, static, properties are immediately calculable.
We can apply equation 2.9, relating stagnation and static conditions at a point or
along an adiabatic stream tube in a moving fluid, to a perfect gas, and then substitute
from equation 2.40 to obtain:

ho - h st

Substituting in the last equation the definition of Mach number,

C
M=- (2.56)
a st
70 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

we obtain
To
(2.57)
Tot

Equation 2.57 is the fundamental equation of one-dimensional compressible flow.

Equation 2.55 coupled with equation 2.57 gives:

Po
(2.58)
Pst

Po
(2.59)
Pst

Equation 2.57 has a significant difference from equations 2.58 and 2.59. Equation 2.57
is based on the first law only, and on adiabatic (no-heat-transfer), but not necessarily
isentropic (not loss-less) flow. However, equations 2.58 and 2.59 are valid only for
isentropic flows.

Continuity in terms of Mach number

The Mach number M == Clast can be introduced into the continuity equation m=
PstAC:
m
-A = Psta«M
.
We substitute for P = I/v and for a, from equation 2.40. Then:

m Pst M gcCpTst
A RTot
(1- 1)

m
. JRTsrlgc
Apst
M[I-~J-2 (2.60)

We usually know the stagnation, rather than the static conditions, and we therefore convert
this relation into a more useful form using equations 2.57 and 2.58:

= (2.61)
Sec. 2.5. Compressible-flow functions for a perfect gas 71

y -
M.JY [ 1+ ( - 2 -
1) M
2J-2rY~\)
The gas constant R can be found from the universal gas constant m and the molecular
weight Mw (values given by equations 2.33 and 2.34). A chart of equation 2.61 is shown
in figure 2.9.
Substituting equation 2.57 into equation 2.61 gives:

c (2.62)

= (2.63)

0.7r-----+------r-----+------~----+_----~----~

0 .6 r-------j-----_+_

0 . 51-------t------+~r#_-t------l_----_+_----+----____j

0'3t------t-H---+------j------t-----+------+-------l

0.21-----litj----+---t----I----+---+------1

0.1 r--I---+------+------~----+_----_+_----_I_----___l

0.2 0.4 0.6 O.S to t2 1.4

MACH NUMBER

Figure 2.9. Universal flow-function plot

72 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

1.4 Cllg,RT, = 2iC {1-[He;-

M2 ] - '}
2(--1)
R .

t2f----+----+----I----f----+--~~--__l

LOf----+----+--

~ Qef------\---+---=
"-
U
0.6·t----+---+-~H---+_--+--_+--___l

0 .4t----+-~4--_I---+__--+--_+--_I

0.21--~~--_+--_+---l_--+_--_I_--~

02 0.4 0.6 0.8 t,2 1.4

MACH NUMBER

Figure 2.10. Velocity function versus Mach number for perfect gases

Equation 2.62 indicates that the left-hand side, a velocity function, is a function of M
and Cp / R. A chart of equation 2.62 is shown in figure 2.10.
The use of the above equations and of figures 2.9 and 2.10 is illustrated in the
following examples.
Sec. 2.5. Compressible-flow functions for a perfect gas 73

Appropriate areas and velocities

All the relationships developed apply to the actual velocities of the streams relative
to the observer, and the areas are those actually available. The static density must always
be found using the actual (inclined) value of the velocity C.
In turbomachines, velocities are often in directions far from that parallel to the axis
of the duct or passage containing the flow. If the angle the flow makes with the axial
direction is ex , then the available flow area is Aan cos ex, where Aan is the annulus (normal)
area.
Alternatively, one can take the axial component of velocity, Cz = C cos ex, in combi-
nation with the annulus area Aan in the continuity equation.
74 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

Speed of sound in terms of stagnation conditions

Another useful compressible-flow relation is that giving the "true" speed of sound,
ast,in terms of the stagnation temperature, To, and the Mach number, M. It is obtained
by combining equations 2.40 and 2.57:

gc R To----Ll
y-
ast = (2.64)
~2 + ~-1
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 75

2.6 Turbomachine-efficiency definitions

The overall energy efficiencies of turbomachines compare the actual work transfer
with that which would occur in an ideal process. In an energy-using machine, such as
a pump or compressor, the work transfer in the ideal process is in the numerator. In an
energy-producing machine, the ideal-process work transfer is in the denominator.
Efficiencies are seldom defined with sufficient precision. The statement that "we can
deliver a compressor with an efficiency of 95 percent" is so undefined as to be almost
useless for analysis. In fact, competition in machine efficiencies occasionally leads to
intentional or unintentional failure to define which of many efficiencies is being used. To
take an extreme example, an intercooled compressor may have at the same time, and at the
same operating point, an isothermal efficiency of 75 percent and an isentropic efficiency
of over 100 percent. Or a turbine may simultaneously have isentropic stagnation-to-static
efficiencies of 90 percent and 80 percent, depending on what assumption or specification
is made about the outlet plane.

General efficiency definitions

The efficiency of a pump 11pu or compressor 11e is defined as follows: "[power transfer
in ideal process from an inlet stagnation pressure and temperature to a defined outlet
stagnation pressure] divided by [the actual compressor or pump power]". The efficiency
of an expander or turbine 11e is defined as the inverse of this ratio.

~n ,ie ~II ,ie Wex ac

11pu == -.-- 11e == -.-- 11e == -.-'- (2.65)
~n,ae ~n, ae Wex ,ie

These definitions require more precision, particularly in four aspects.

1. The ideal process must be identified. (The principal choices are isentropic, poly-
tropic, and isothermal.)
2. The inlet and, more significantly, the outlet plane must be identified.
3. It should be stated whether the "defined outlet stagnation pressure" is the actual
stagnation pressure or the "useful" stagnation pressure (which might in fact be the
static pressure).

4. The actual work transfer may be just that in the machine blading (sometimes called
the "internal" or "blading" work, and hence efficiency), or it may also include disk
and seal friction and bearing losses; which of these is to be used should be specified.
Even in scientific papers it is common to identify only the ideal process. Let us
discuss the implications of these aspects.

Ideal processes
The two principal ideal processes used are the isentropic for adiabatic processes
and the isothermal for gas compression when intercooling is (or can be) employed. In
76 Ch . 2 . Review of thermodynamics

addition, a variation of the isentropic efficiency is to take the limiting value at unity
pressure ratio. This is termed the "small-stage" or "polytropic" efficiency, for reasons
that will become obvious later. In machines using liquids, such as pumps and hydraulic
turbines, the ideal isentropic process is also isothermal (equation 2.52). The ideal work
transfer in these various cases is found as follows.

Isentropic process
Consider the SFEE for gas turbomachinery (equation 2.11) for an adiabatic process
(Qin = Qex = 0). If the machine is a compressor, then Wex = 0 and Will > O. If the
machine is a turbine, then W;n =
0 and Wex > O. In either case, the actual and isentropic
processes result in:

(2.66)

(2.67)

where h ~ex , s is defined as the enthalpy after an isentropic process from hO,in and PO,in
to P~ ex ' the defined outlet pressure (to be discussed below). These are the general
expressions.
In the special case of a perfect gas,

== h o.ex - hO,in == Cp (To ,ex - TO,in)

= h~,ex,s - hO,in = (TO®,ex,s - TO ,in) = Cp TO ,in (To~ex,s

TO,in
- 1)
CpTO,in [( P~ex )
PO,in
RI C
p
_ 1] = C p TO ,in (rR I Cp - 1) (2.68)

(y ~ 1) RTO,in {r[ ( y -l)IY ]_l}

®
PO,ex
r
PO, in

where r is the pressure ratio, representing the compressor pressure ratio rc > 1, or the
turbine pressure ratio re < 1. Equation 2.68 illustrates why the authors are keen on the
"(CpjR)" rather than the "y" form of the compressible flow and isentropic equations.
This equation, and others like it, are usually given as

( Win: Wex ) s = C p TO ,in [r[ (Y - I) IY ] - 1]

Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 77

leading users to find a value of Cp appropriate for temperature but to take y as constant
with temperature. This approach leads to errors and inconsistencies in precise calcula-
tions.
Substituting equations 2.66, 2.67, and 2.68 in equations 2.65, the "internal" isentropic
efficiencies for a compressor and turbine, Tis ,c and Tis,e, respectively, are:

h~ex, s - hO,in To~ex,s - TO,ill reRICp - 1

Tis, e = = (2.69)
hO,ex - hO,in TO ,ex - TO ,in TO ,ex _ 1
To ,in
1 _ TO,ex
hO,in - hO,ex TO ,in - TO,ex TO,in
Tis ,e = (2.70)
hO,in - h~ex,s TO,in - T00 ex s 1 - reRICp

The above equations in terms of temperature differences and r are exact for perfect
gases, and approximations (with appropriate values of Cp = Cp ) for semi-perfect gases,
In the special case of an adiabatic liquid machine with equal inlet and outlet elevations
the SFEE (equation 2.4) reduces to:

(Win: Wex ) s = t.f~ho,s = t.f:'(U + POV)s

If the liquid can be treated as incompressible (it is a reasonable approximation for water
in most pressure ranges for pumps and water turbines), the specific volume, v = lip,
is constant. For an isentropic process in an incompressible liquid (equation 2.52) t. T
= t.u = 0 (hence the subscript it for isothermal as well as s for isentropic). Therefore:
.. ., °
( Win -. Wex) -_ ("'in -. Wex ) _ A ex _ PO,ex,s - PO,in
- VLJ.inPO,s - (2.71)
m s m it p
For very-high-pressure-ratio pumps where the liquid is compressible, the general
expressions, equations 2.66 and 2.67, must be used.

Isothermal process
For incompressible liquids, equation 2.71 gives the isentropic and isothermal ideal
power required to attain P~ex'
For any simple substance, let T = TO ,in = TO ,ex be the temperature of isothermal
compression from inlet pressure PO,in to outlet pressure P~ex ' Assuming inlet and outlet
are at the same elevation, and starting from the SFEE (equation 2.4),

=
= ~f~ho - T ~f~so == (ho, ex - hO,in) - T(so .ex - SO.in) (2.72)
where we used Qinlrh = T t.s st = T t.so for the isothermal process. Equation 2.72 and
property tables can be used to evaluate the entropy change from inlet to outlet for most
substances.
78 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

The isothermal power required for perfect and semi-perfect gases is obtained by
substituting in the general equation 2.72 ho,ex - hO,in = Cp(To,ex - TO,in) = 0 and ~so
from the first of equations 2.54, where T = TO.in = To. ex :

.. 0
( Win ~ Wex ). = T R In PO,ex (2.73)
m II PO, in

Actual work transfer

The actual work transfer in the process is given by the SFEE:

( lttn -. Wex ) + ( Qin - . Qex ) = ~ ex h 0 =

In
(h O,ex _ h 0,111
.) (2.74)
m m

Turbomachines are generally adiabatic, in which case Qin = Qex = O. In some

cases, however, heat transfer is significant. The two principal examples are intercooled
compressors and cooled turbine expanders. Another case, a rare one, is the multistage
turbine with reheat combustion or heat exchange between one or more stages. In these
cases the heat transfer, or its equivalent in the case of combustion of fuel, must be
included.
Equation 2.74 is the general and exact expression for the actual work transfer in a
process not involving significant changes in fluid height. In other words, this will be the
work transfer between the fluid and the machine's rotor(s), stator(s), and ducts. In many
uses of energy efficiencies, this "process" work transfer is employed in the evaluation of
efficiency, and it gives a measure of the quality of the aerodynamic and thermodynamic
design.
The purchaser or user of a turbomachine is less concerned with aerodynamics than
with actual energy cost, however. The purchaser wants to know how much work input is
required or is produced at the shaft. Therefore, "external" energy losses, those external
to the working fluid, must be added to or subtracted from the process energy.
External energy losses result from friction in bearings, labyrinths, and possibly on
the faces of disks ("windage"). We say "possibly" because, if the fluid causing the disk
friction is bled from the working fluid and passes back into the working fluid, as is
frequently the case, the energy losses appear as an increase in enthalpy (and entropy) in
the working fluid, and therefore are measured as an increase in the outlet enthalpy and a
loss in work. The same could be true of working-fluid-Iubricated bearings, for example
gas bearings, that exhaust into the machine discharge. The same is occasionally true of
labyrinth fluid.
Therefore it is not possible to identify the external energy losses in a general way.
We shall simply term them ~ [external losses] for identification in each individual case
(see table 2.2). The questions of using appropriate reference planes and defining the
useful outlet pressure will be discussed below.
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 79

Table 2.2. Types of turbomachine efficiencies

Efficiency Compressor or pump Expander or turbine
Isentropic,
h~ex , s - hO,ill hO,ill - hO,ex - Wg3lm
general fluid,
hO,ex - hO,il! + Wg31m hO,il! - h~ex , s
I1s

Isentropic, 1 _ ( ® I . )11' _ Ws3

PO,ex PO,1n (mepTO.in)
perfect gas,
I1s
( ® I
PO,ex . )11' - 1 + ~
PO,11l (mh O.in )

Isentropic,
(H6:ex - HO,in)(glgc)
incompr.
liquid, I1s Will 1m

Isothermal,
general gas,
h~ex - hO,in t:.~:ho - T t:.~~So - W8 31m
Winlm t:.~~ ho - T t:.~~ So
l1it

Isothermal,
perfect gas, Not used for expanders
l1it

Notes: The exponent n' is defined in section 2.6. W g3 indicates group 3 losses as defined in chapters 7, 8, and
9, the E[extemallosses]. 6 7: ho = hO,ex - hO.in and 67:so = SO,ex - SO,in '

Polytropic efficiency for perfect gas

The isentropic efficiency has a serious disadvantage if it is used as a measure of the
quality of the aerodynamic design (or as a measure of the losses) in an adiabatic machine.
The value of the isentropic efficiency is a function of pressure ratio as well as of losses,
for the following reasons.
Suppose that we combine two compressors of equal isentropic efficiency and equal
enthalpy rise to make a compressor of higher pressure ratio (figure 2.11). The combined
actual enthalpy rise will be the sum of the individual enthalpy rises. But the sum of the
isentropic enthalpy rises will be larger than the isentropic enthalpy rise for the combined
compressor, as explained below. The enthalpy rises are equal:

t:.ho, 1 = t:.hO,2

For each stage

_ t:.hO.1 ,s _ t:.hO,2.s
I1s ,c - t:.h - t:.h
0.1 0,2
80 Ch . 2. Review of thermodynamics

>-
Do-
--1
«
I
t-
Z
w

ENTROPY,s

Figure 2.11. Isentropic efficiency of a two-stage compressor

Therefore Ilho.1,s = Ilh o,2,s' But Ilho,2,s > Ilh~.2, s (see equations 2.46 and 2.68). For
the two stages
Ilho, l,s + Ilh~, 2,s
TIs ,c = Ilh 0 , I + Ilh 0,2

Therefore the isentropic efficiency of the two-stage compressor is less than that of the
single-stage compressor.
The losses are indicated by the increase of entropy in the working fluid per unit change
of enthalpy: in other words, by the slope of the process line on the h - s chart. This
slope is a function of the exponent n in pv n = constant, which can be used to represent
the process. (In fact this relation need connect only the end points of the process. The
intermediate points will presumably be close to those given by the relation, but the process
does not have to follow the "polytropic" equation for the following to be true.)
To avoid the influence of pressure ratio on the isentropic efficiency, the limiting value
of the isentropic efficiency for a given polytropic process can be used as the pressure ratio
approaches unity. In steam turbines this efficiency is usually known as the "small-stage"
efficiency. In gas-turbine expanders and compressors, it is known as the "polytropic"
efficiency.
The combination of the polytropic relation, pv n = constant, and the equation of state
for a perfect gas (equation 2.33) leads to

r
= PO.ex
® _ ( PO, ex )n
PO,in PO,in
for a polytropic, and

PO,ex To,ex
r
PO ,in TO, in
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 81

for any process. Therefore

TO. ex )
( - - -r
(n ;;- 1) - rn' where
, n- 1
n ;;:--.
TO,in - -, n
The actual enthalpy rise (work input) of an adiabatic compressor is

To ,ex )
t!..ho = Cp(To. ex - TO,in) = CpTO,in ( y;-:- - n'
1 = Cp TO ,in(r - 1) (2.75)
O,In

The isentropic enthalpy rise is

t!..hO ,s = Cp T.o , In
. (r R / Cp - 1) (2.76)

Therefore the "internal" isentropic efficiency, T)s,c , of a compressor working on a perfect

gas is
r R / Cp - 1
T)s,c = n' 1 (2.77)
r -
Let the pressure ratio r ;;: 1 + ~ and let ~ -7 0 so that the pressure ratio approaches
unity. The binomial theorem gives:

n
(1 + R/ Cp - I 1 + (R/Cp)~ + .. . + ... - 1
T)s, c = (1 + nn' - 1 = 1 + n'~ + .. , + ... - 1

As ~ -7 0, ~2 and higher-order terms can be neglected. Therefore the polytropic

efficiency of a compressor, T)p, c, and of a turbine, T)p ,e , are defined by:

(2.78)

For perfect gases the polytropic efficiencies defined by equations 2.78 lead to the
following useful relations:
TO ,ex
- - = rc
[( ~) ry:J (2.79)
TO ,in
for compressors, and
TO ,ex
- - = re
[( ~) T)p. eJ (2.80)
TO ,in
for expanders (turbines).

Definition of useful outlet pressure

These equations (2.79 and 2.80) enable the adiabatic work,

(2.81)
82 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

to be obtained directly from the pressure ratio. But which value of P~ex should be used?
It is the value for which I]p is defined. A stagnation-to-static efficiency at the outlet
flange, for instance, defines the useful stagnation pressure at this plane as the actual static
pressure there.
Figure 2.12 shows four equivalent ideal polytropic adiabatic compression processes
for different definitions of useful outlet pressure. All processes have the same inlet To, 1
and outlet TO,2 and therefore the same actual work. Their differing values of n' depend
only on which of the four possibilities is used for p~ 2:

P~2 == P st , 2 the rotor-outlet static pressure, or

P~2 == PO,2 the rotor-outlet stagnation pressure, or
P~2 == P st , 3 the stator-outlet static pressure, or
P~2 == PO,3 the stator-outlet stagnation pressure.

In a compressor the diffuser outlet and the casing flange may provide other locations
for the outlet pressure to be defined. When P~ 2 is defined as a static pressure, the
efficiency obtained is termed a "stagnation-to-static" efficiency, I]os. When P~ 2 is a
stagnation pressure, the efficiency obtained is "stagnation to stagnation", 1]00.
It is probable that turbomachine efficiencies are poorly defined and hence misused
more because of confusion over the definition of P~ 2 than through any other factor. Here
are some comments intended to clear up some of the confusion.

l. There is no "right" definition of efficiency. One may choose to use any definition
one wants. It is of course essential that whichever is chosen is exactly identified.

2. There may, however, be a definition that is more appropriate in certain circum-

stances than others. The reason why it is more appropriate is likely to be that it

b::
...J
<[
:r:
I-
z
w
hC\1 t---r'-~C-f--r-----­
(TO))

ENTROPY, S

Figure 2.12. Dependence of ideal work transfer of a compressor on the definition

of useful outlet pressure
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 83

saves some effort in making calculations and in accounting for energy flows and
loss locations. For instance, the appropriate definition of P~ 2 for the efficiency
of a compressor in a turbojet engine is the static pressure at the end of the com-
pressor diffuser, the boundary between the compressor and the combustor, because
the dynamic pressure at the point cannot be used by the combustor. There would
be nothing thermodynamically wrong in choosing to use the stagnation pressure,
but doing so would have undesirable consequences. The combustor would seem
to have a higher pressure drop than under the other definition, because the inlet
pressure would now be listed as the stagnation, instead of the static, pressure. The
compressor designer would then have an incentive to cut back the diffuser, or
maybe to eliminate it altogether, which would further increase the numerical value
of the compressor efficiency and further increase the allocated combustor pressure
drop. At this point we would have gone beyond merely energy accounting. The
actual losses would be increased if the diffuser were eliminated, so that defining the
compressor efficiency in terms of a stagnation outlet pressure could have wholly
undesirable consequences.
Therefore the choice of the "appropriate" value of P~2 is one that must take in-
centives into account.
In the case of the turbine of a turbojet engine, the appropriate P~ 2 to use in the
turbine-efficiency definition is the stagnation pressure upstream of the propulsion
nozzle that produces the jet. Obviously in this case the dynamic pressure in the
stream is useful, and there is no need for an incentive for the turbine designer to
diffuse the leaving flow.

3. Only the ideal work is affected by the choice of definition of useful outlet pressure,
P~2' The actual work is entirely unaffected. One has only one decision to make
with regard to the actual work: whether or not to include the "external" friction
losses (bearings, windage, and seals).

4. Even if the choice of useful outlet pressure is a static pressure, it is defined as a

stagnation pressure, P~2' The reason is that the ideal work is found from the steady-
flow energy equation, equation 2.11, which requires the stipulation of stagnation
enthalpies at the beginning and end of the process. We are defining a hypothetical
state for a hypothetical (ideal) process. Even though it is confusing, there is nothing
illogical about defining a hypothetical stagnation pressure as being numerically
equal to a known static pressure.

Shape of polytropic-process lines on the h-s diagram

Just as the lines of constant pressure are often erroneously represented as straight on
the h - s diagram for a perfect gas (figure 2.8), so, too, are lines of constant polytropic
exponent n. We shall show that, in fact, these lines are curved to maintain a constant
differential gradient with the constant-pressure lines.
84 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

The equation for a polytropic process is pV" = constant. Differentiating and dividing
give

~ dp + dv =0
n p v
Differentiating the equation of state for a perfect gas pv = RT and dividing gives
dp dv dT
-p + -
v
= T-
Gibbs' equation (equation 2.31) with equation 2.35 is
Tds = CpdT - vdp

Combining the last three equations gives

T ds = CpdT - R dT/n'

ds
dT
= Cp
T
(1- R/Cp
n'
) (2.82)

Using the definitions of compressor and expander polytropic efficiencies, equations 2.78,
we can now derive the slope of the polytropic processes in the following simple forms,
for compression and expansion respectively:

(2.83)

These differ from the slope of the constant-pressure lines, given in equation 2.46, by a
constant: the efficiency function, (aT/as)p = (T/Cp)'
The slope of the compression line is positive, and that of the expansion line is negative.
For a polytropic efficiency of 100 percent, the slope becomes infinite: the line is vertical
and is an isentrope (figure 2.13). At a temperature of absolute zero, both lines have zero
slope.
The variation of curvature of the polytropic lines is of little significance for machines
of small pressure ratio. However, for large pressure ratios a misrepresentation of the
shape of these process lines can lead to the drawing of incorrect conclusions.

Polytropic processes for non-perfect gases

Because non-perfect gases have non-constant values of the isentropic index connecting
points on an isentropic process, the relationship just derived for perfect gases cannot apply.
Instead, a mean polytropic efficiency is based on a factor that represents the increased
value of (ah/(ap/p»s with increased temperature. This factor is known as the reheat
factor.
We combine Gibbs' equation 2.31 with the definition of enthalpy h == u + pv:
dh du+ pdv + vdp
dh Tds + vdp
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 85

Entropy, S

Figure 2.13. Polytropic processes

Therefore

( ~)
op/p s
= pv = Zc RT (2.84)

The general equation of state, pv = Zc RT, applies to non-perfect gases, with the so-
called compressibility factor, Zc, being a slowly varying function of (reduced) pressure
and temperature. R is the gas constant. Equation 2.84 shows that the isentropic enthalpy
drop between lines of constant pressure increases with absolute temperature as with
perfect gases, for which Zc = 1, and for which the appropriate relation was derived in
equation 2.49.
Therefore, when a non-isentropic adiabatic expansion, such as that from 01 to 02
in figure 2.14, is divided into a number of actual or hypothetical small expansions, the
isentropic enthalpy drop of each (for example, ai, b') will be larger than the corresponding
section (a, b) of the overall isentropic enthalpy drop flho ,s'
That is a' > a, b' > b, and "£flho,s,se > flho ,s , where

flho ,s,se == isentropic enthalpy drop of small "stage", and

flho ,se == actual enthalpy drop of small "stage".
86 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

r.
~
Q...
-.J l:;h O•s
<!
:r:
I-
z
W

ENTROPY, S

Figure 2.14. Polytropic process for a non-perfect gas

However, f...ho,se = l:;h o. Now the overall isentropic efficiency, 1'}s, is

1'}s
l:;h o = ( ~l:;ho,se ) . (~f...ho,s,se)
f...ho,s ~ f...ho,s,se f...ho,s
1'}s 1'}p R h (2.85)

where
1'}p == f...ho,se/ f...ho,s,se, the "small-stage" isentropic efficiency, and
Rh == ~l:;ho,s,se/l:;ho,s, the "reheat factor".
The reheat factor is obviously a function of pressure ratio, being unity for very low
pressure ratios, and of polytropic efficiency, being unity for all pressure ratios when the
polytropic efficiency is unity.

Usefulness of polytropic efficiency

In removing the effect of pressure ratio, the polytropic efficiency enables machines
of different pressure ratio to be compared with validity. A single-stage compressor may
have an isentropic efficiency of 90 percent, stagnation to stagnation. If this stage is
combined with others of similar performance to form a high-pres sure-ratio compressor,
the isentropic stagnation-to-stagnation efficiency of the whole compressor may be only
85 percent, making it appear to be of inferior aerodynamic performance. If, however,
Sec. 2.6. Turbomachine-efficiency definitions 87

the polytropic efficiency is used, both the single-stage and the multistage machines will
have the same polytropic efficiency of about 91 percent.
The polytropic efficiency has a double advantage in analysis of Brayton power cycles,
particularly when the design pressure ratio is being varied. First, as mentioned, a single
value of polytropic efficiency can be entered for each compression and expansion process,
instead of isentropic efficiencies that vary with pressure ratio. Second, the equations using
polytropic efficiencies are often simpler than those for isentropic efficiencies, leading to
a saving in computation time.
In practice, however, the elimination of the reheat factor by the use of polytropic effi-
ciencies does not eliminate all influence of pressure ratio from efficiency. A compressor
or turbine of high pressure ratio will have higher Mach numbers, in general, and blading
that is relatively longer in the low-pressure region and shorter in the high-pressure area,
all factors leading to increased losses. The variation in maximum efficiency with pressure
ratio is discussed in chapter 3.

Effect of leaving losses on efficiency values

The stagnation-to-stagnation efficiency (at machine, or diffuser, outlet) has been
quoted here because of the complicating effects of the outlet kinetic energy, or "leaving
losses". These leaving losses are relatively much more important for a single-stage than
for a multistage machine, as will become obvious when velocity diagrams are considered
(chapter 5). Therefore, if the more usually quoted stagnation-to-static efficiencies had
been used, some of the pressure-ratio effects of isentropic efficiency would have been
compensated for by the pressure-ratio effects of leaving losses.

Actual work is unaffected by efficiency definition

From the steady-flow energy equation the actual (internal) work is the difference in
stagnation enthalpy from inlet to outlet. This work remains constant at (ho,ex - ho.in )
regardless of how the outlet pressure is defined,

Relations between polytropic and isentropic efficiencies for perfect gases

For compression
rR / Cp - 1
l1s ,c (2,86)
r(R/Cp)ryp.c - 1
In (rR/Cp )
17p,c (2,87)
In [(rR/Cp - 1) IT/s ,c + 1]
For expansion
1- r(R/ Cp)ryp.e
T}s , e = 1- rR/ Cp
(2,88)

In[I-17s,e(l- r R / Cp )]
T/p .e (2,89)
InrR/Cp
88 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

As before, the outlet stagnation pressure, P~ex' must be chosen to be consistent with
the particular definition of efficiency being used.

References
Gyftopoulos, Elias P., and Beretta, Gian Paolo (1991). Thermodynamics: Foundations and Appli-
cations. Macmillan, NY, NY.
Keenan, Joseph H. (1970). Thermodynamics. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Keenan, Joseph H., Jing Chao, and Joseph Kaye (1983). Gas Tables. Wiley, NY.
Korakianitis, T., Vlachopoulos, N.E., and Zou, D. (1994). Models for the prediction of transients
in regenerative gas turbines with centrifugal impellers. ASME paper 94-GT-361, Transactions
of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power (in print).
Reynolds, William C. (1968). Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill, NY, NY.

Problems
1. Does the stagnation temperature of the working fluid rise or fall in passing through a gas-
turbine expander? Why?

2. Does the temperature of the water rise or fall in passing through a water turbine? Why?

3. By how much, and in which direction, does the temperature of water change when it falls
over a waterfall 50 m high? What is the mechanism for this change?

4. Sketch in your qualitative estimates of the variation of stagnation and static enthalpy and
pressure through the intercooled compressor shown in figure P2.4. Some end points are
shown. (Four lines are required.)

5. For the subsonic axial-flow air expander specified, calculate the stagnation and static pressures
and temperatures and the Mach number at the rotor-inlet plane (figure P2.5). Also find the
rotor rotational speed and the nozzle-inlet blade height for constant-outer-diameter blading.
Sketch the form of the complete turbine expansion on an enthalpy-entropy chart. The axial
velocity will be constant at this design point.

Mass flow, m= 2 kgls

Nozzle-inlet stagnation temperature, TO ,ni = 400°C.
Absolute nozzle-inlet stagnation pressure, PO,ni = 3 bars(= 3 x 105 N/m2)
Mean diameter, dm = 0.25 m,
Blade height at rotor entry, I = O.ld", (= 1/2[d, - dll)) .
Flow angle at nozzle exit, al = 70° to axial direction.
Drop in stagnation pressure in nozzle, ""'Po = 0.05 bar
Rotor peripheral speed at mean diameter, Urn = 0.5 x (component of nozzle outlet
velocity, Ce, I)'
 Problems 89

INLET FLANGE ~A~Eis GUIDE

I TWO-STAGE
DIFFUSER
~ATER- COOLED I
~ALJis GUIDE

TWO-STAGE
RECEIVER
DIFFUSER
OUTLET

.---'---'li'-
AXIAL - FLOW AXIAL-FLOW
~~~~

ho,ex

PO,ex

PO,in
Pst, in

Figure P2.4

® CD ® @ @

Figure P2.S
90 Ch . 2. Review of thermodynamics

6. Complete the table of efficiencies, table P2.6, for the turbine expander of problem 2.5, for
inlet conditions 1, 500 K and 8 x 105 N/m2. The turbine stagnation enthalpy drop is twice
the mean blade speed squared (f:..ho = 2u~) and the mean blade speed is 500 m/s. The flow
velocity at rotor exit is axial and is 0.728 of the mean blade speed, and it is reduced by 50
percent in the diffuser. The rise in static pressure in the diffuser is 75 percent of the value it
would have if the diffuser flow were isentropic. Also calculate the power, in kW, delivered
by the blading. (Do not count the "external" losses-bearing friction and so forth-here or
in the efficiencies.) The inlet conditions to be used for the efficiencies are the stagnation
conditions at plane N .
Table P2.6

Outlet plane
Efficiency 2 3

'1,,11 0.95
'1"ts
'1p .tt
'1p.ts

7. Given that an axial-compressor stage is a row of rotor blades which act as diffusers, followed
by a row of stator blades which also act as diffusers, explain (from first-law and second-law
considerations) why a high Mach number is necessary if the compressor is to give a high
pressure ratio.

8. Calculate the isentropic stagnation-to-static internal efficiency of an intercooled air compressor

(rather similar to that shown in problem 2.4) from inlet flange to outlet flange. Comment on
your findings. Suppose that instead of the actual arrangement shown, two centrifugal stages
are used, one upstream and one downstream of the intercooler. Each stage has a stagnation-
to-stagnation flange-to-flange pressure ratio of 4 : I, and each has a stagnation-to-stagnation
polytropic efficiency of 88 percent for the same planes (I to 2 and 3 to 4). The mean velocity
at the outlet flange of each stage is 30 m/s. The intercooler has a stagnation-pressure loss
of 6 percent of the stagnation pressure of the flow entering it, and it lowers the stagnation
temperature to 1.03 times the first-stage-inlet stagnation temperature of 305 K. Use a constant
value of y = 1.4. Draw a temperature-entropy diagram.

9. Using figure P2.9, calculate the rotor rotational speed, the static temperature and pressure at
nozzle exit, and the (absolute) Mach number at that point, of a radial-inward-flow turbine
expander of nozzle-outlet diameter (surface 1) of 250 mm. As an approximation, take this
as the rotor-inlet diameter also. The nozzle-exit direction of the flow is 75 degrees from the
radial direction, and the axial height of the blade passage is 10 percent of the rotor diameter.
The turbine nozzles are supplied with 2 kg/s of air at 2 bars stagnation pressure and 125 °C
stagnation temperature. The rotor peripheral speed is 90 percent of the tangential velocity of
the air at nozzle exit. The stagnation-pressure losses of the flow through the nozzles are small
enough to be neglected. Sketch the nozzle expansion on a temperature-entropy diagram.

10. Draw lines approximating the changes of stagnation and static enthalpy and pressure through
the compressor test rig shown diagrammatically below (figure P2.IO). The centrifugal com-
pressor is driven by a motor and by the energy-recovery turbine, which expands the flow
Problems 91

Figure P2.9

Turbine
Partly closed
Diffuser

Compressor Diffuser

PO. 1 r----r----~--+_----~r_-~--------r-+_--+_--_4.----_4-----------­
Pst.1

Figure P2.10. Stagnation and static pressure and enthalpy through a compressor test rig

back to atmospheric pressure (as static pressure). A throttle valve is used to produce different
back pressures on the compressor.

11. Figure P2.tt shows a block diagram of the compressor test rig of problem 2.10. Your task is
to draw control volumes around each of the three components, and then one around the three
as an assembly, excluding the motor. Calculate and discuss the external energy flows and
changes of enthalpy using the steady-flow energy equation. Do this for two different cases.
In the first case, the throttle valve is wide open, so that there is no loss of stagnation pressure
between the outlet of the compressor diffuser and the inlet of the turbine bell mouth. In the
second case, the throttle reduces the turbine expansion ratio from 10 to 5 to 1.

In both cases the compressor takes in 25 kg/s of air at 288 K and compresses it through
a stagnation-to-static pressure ratio (to diffuser exit) of 10 : 1 and a polytropic efficiency
(same conditions) of 0.80. The turbine takes the flow from the throttle valve and expands
92 Ch. 2. Review of thermodynamics

f---'-'- '---'-'
._____ .L._ ._._CV1 CV3~

C E

-.-.~~--.-.-:
Valve /
.L .
__ . _ . _ _ _ . _ . _ . J

CV2
-~~~~-.-.-.-.-.-

Figure P2.11. Block diagram of compressor test rig

it to atmospheric pressure with a stagnation-to-static polytropic efficiency of 0.90. A mean

specific heat of 1020 J/(kg . K) and a gas constant of 286.96 J/(kg . K) may be used throughout.

12. If a centrifugal air compressor has a stagnation-to-stagnation isentropic efficiency to diffuser

outlet of 0.80, would the isothermal efficiency for the same conditions be higher? Or lower?
Why?
Would the stagnation-to-stagnation polytropic efficiency from rotor (impeller) inlet to rotor
outlet be higher than 0.80? Or lower?

13. Calculate the power output in kW of a radial-inflow turbine for a Diesel-engine turbocharger.
The exhaust gas has a molecular weight of 28 .5 and a mass flow of 0.25 kg/so The gas enters
the turbine at a stagnation temperature of 675 K and a stagnation enthalpy of 695 kJ/kg.
The stagnation pressure at inlet is 280,000 Pa. The rotor is 150 mm diameter and runs at
50, 000 rpm. The gas enters the rotor with a velocity of 400 mls at 70° to the radial direction,
and leaves without swirl at a Mach number of 0.22. The static pressure at diffuser outlet is
100,000 Pa.

14. Suppose that you are a manufacturer of high-speed boats, wanting to specify and purchase the
most effective axial-flow water-pump jet-propulsion units to be connected to the boat's engine
(see figure P2.14). Write down the four factors needed to define turbomachine efficiency.
Then choose your specifications for each factor to enable you to choose the best pump for
your application.

15. Figure P2.15 is a diagram of a test setup of a device with which an inventor wants to
heat buildings under construction. Plot the qualitative variations of four air properties: the
stagnation and static pressures and temperatures. Assume that the motor waste heat (from
inefficiencies) is conducted into the airflow.

16. At what flow angle will the flow become just sonic downstream of the variable-setting-angle
nozzles of a high-pressure turbine? The annulus into which the nozzles discharge has a shroud
diameter of 283 mm, and a hub/shroud diameter ratio of 0.85. The mass flow is 8 kg/s; the
Problems 93

Propulsion
unit

Figure P2.14. Water-pump jet propulsion

Electric fan
Kerosine
Venturi for air-flow Diffuser combustor
measurement ~~
I

----..
Cold air in

Electric power
I Vanes '
I straightening
I flow

Figure P2.1S. Stagnation and static pressure and temperatures in building-heating device

stagnation temperature and pressure at nozzle exit are 1550 K and 15 bar; R is 286.96 J/
(kg · K); and Cp / R is 4.1. The flow enters the nozzles without swirl, and an impulse turbine
is downstream of the nozzles.

17. Does the steady-flow energy equation apply precisely to a turbine in which the blades are
cooled? Explain.