Attachment Style and Career Satisfaction

Trends in Psychology (2022) 30:763–787
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-022-00152-z
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Career Satisfaction and Adult Attachment Style Among

Working Adults: Evidence from Turkey
Ryan Macey Wise1 · Burcu Alsan1 · Elham Taleb1
Accepted: 1 February 2022 / Published online: 17 February 2022

© Associação Brasileira de Psicologia 2022
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between employee attachment style, organiza-
tional factors, and career satisfaction among adult employees in Turkey. A total of
288 (167 female, 121 male) employees working in two sectors participated in this
study with an age range of 22 to 60 years (M = 31.8, SD = 7.4). Adult attachment
styles were measured with the Relationship Scales Questionnaire and career satis-
faction was assessed with the Career Satisfaction Scale. A series of multiple hierar-
chical regression analyses and correlational analyses were conducted to examine the
relationship between career satisfaction, attachment style, and organizational factors.
The results revealed that organizational factors and attachment styles are important
predictive measures of career satisfaction. A unique finding was the positive rela-
tionship between dismissing attachment and career satisfaction, a result we inter-
pret as an outcome related to economic insecurity and crisis. Both theoretical and
applied implications of the results are discussed and suggestions for future direc-
tions are addressed.
Keywords Attachment · Career satisfaction · Organizational psychology · Turkey
Career Satisfaction and Adult Attachment StyleAmong Working

Adults: Evidence from Turkey
Determining predictors of career satisfaction is important for evaluating employee

success, motivation, and performance, and is a key element in talent development
(Bargsted et al., 2021; Heslin & Turban, 2016). Previous research has mostly con-
centrated on job-related factors such as job security, perceptions of fairness, and
reward systems (Iqbal et al., 2020; Yean and Yahya 2013). Despite individual
* Ryan Macey Wise

[email protected]
Burcu Alsan
[email protected]
1
Department of Psychology, Istanbul Bilgi University, Istanbul, Turkey
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764 Trends in Psychology (2022) 30:763–787
differences having received extensive attention (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hogan &
Holland, 2003), there has been little empirical focus on investigating the relationship
between adult attachment patterns and career satisfaction (Sumer & Knight, 2001).
Much of the literature concerning adult attachment style, attachment behaviors, and
their relationship to various organizational outcomes has been limited to samples
recruited from undergraduate university students and focuses on career choices,
rather than occupational experience (Meredith et al., 2007).
Rooted in ethology and evolutionary theory, attachment theory (Bowlby, 1986)
maintains that infants pursue strategies to maintain within close proximity to pri-
mary caregiving figures as an adaptive response to dependency and to promote sur-
vival. It is during the attachment period that infants develop internal working mod-
els in terms of their relationships with a primary attachment figure who serves as
a secure base and offers protection and support in times of threat (Bowlby, 1986).
An individual’s attachment style is internalized into wide regulatory strategies that
guide an individual’s sense of self and interpersonal relationships.
Attachment styles represent internal working models enduring into adulthood
(Chui & Leung, 2016; Cobb & Davila, 2009; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Sheinbaum
et al., 2015). Main and Hesse (1990) defined primary conditional attachment strate-
gies as those that allow an individual to respond promptly and sensitively to an indi-
vidual’s attachment signals. Primary strategies included using attachment figures as
a secure base for activities such as seeking and keeping intimacy, protesting separa-
tion, and engaging in environmental exploration (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Internal
working models influence cognition and behavior in later relationships and contexts
as attachment is transferred from parental figures to adult peers and significant oth-
ers, and informs both interpersonal relationships and environmental interactions
across a broad range of settings. Through internal working models, attachment influ-
ences various behaviors including coping skills, the feeling of personal worth, and
quality of adaptation to environmental requirements (Mikulincer, 1995), including
adult workplace settings (Harms, 2011; Richards & Hackett, 2012).
Blustein, et al. (1995) suggested that work environments required coping with
novel situations and adapting to change, and exhibited a psychological and interper-
sonal dynamic paralleling infant environment interactions. Starting a job is a sociali-
zation process requiring employees to form new relationships and nurture existing
ones. Lowman (1993) further stated that significant interpersonal challenges were
presented in the workplace, and therefore the workplace corresponded to a risky
environment for many employees and that adjustment and employee well-being
were partly informed by adult attachment style. For example, insecurely attached
individuals are reported to be more vulnerable to change due to their less success-
ful adaptations to stressful situations (Hudson, 2013). Secure attachment has been
correlated with adaptation and work-related adjustment (Blustein et al., 1995; Chen
et al., 2021), leadership (Mayseless & Popper, 2019; Underwood et al., 2016), pro-
gress in career decision making (Hazan & Shaver, 1990), work-related exploration
activities, and career exploration (Littman-Ovadia et al. 2013).
Individual differences in attachment relationships have important implications for
orientation and attitudes toward work (Neustadt & Furnham, 2006). The explora-
tion system which is developed in infancy is largely dependent on the availability of
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Trends in Psychology (2022) 30:763–787 765
the attachment figure (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Empirical studies have demonstrated
that attachment to parents is associated positively with environmental exploration
(Blustein et al., 1994; Elliot & Reis, 2003). As the infant attachment process sup-
ports infant exploration, adult attachment supports work activity as adults explore
novel employment settings in order to develop competency in interacting with the
physical and social environment (Fraley & Shaver, 2008). Secure attachment has
been associated with freely exploring work environments and greater work satisfac-
tion. Insecure attachment styles hindered efficient productivity and time-dependent
task completion (Hazan & Shaver, 1990). The sub-categories of insecure attachment
exhibit variation in predicting job success and determining employee–workplace fit
across different components of the workplace environment, including autonomy,
collaboration, goal setting, and conflict resolution (Littman-Ovadia et al., 2013).
There are three insecure attachment styles: fearful, dismissing, and preoccupied
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007), and each has been differentially related to work-
related outcomes (Sheinbaum et al., 2015), including job searching (Leenders et al.
2017), workplace satisfaction (Scrima et al. 2015), and leadership (Boatwright et al.,
2010). Insecure attachment style classifications are centered around two relational
dimensions associated with dealing with distress in interpersonal relationships: anx-
iety and avoidance. Insecure–fearful attachment demonstrates a high level of anxiety
concerning relationships and distancing from others to prevent or minimize this anx-
iety. Insecure–dismissing involves attempts at avoidance of anxiety through reliance
on self-sufficiency and a minimization of distress. Insecure–preoccupied attach-
ment demonstrates less avoidance, but more anxiety and distress in relationships
(Sheinbaum et al., 2015; Vîrgă et al., 2019).
Attachment styles are associated with differential outcomes related to economic
precarity, with secure attachment demonstrating a relationship with more positive
outcomes among low-income adults, whereas insecure attachment is associated
with more deleterious effects (Mills-Koonce et al., 2011). However, although lim-
ited, research suggests that insecure–dismissing attachment demonstrates a protec-
tive function in regard to traumatic events (Bogaerts et al., 2009), partly through the
mechanism of distancing and a positive view of self. Similarly, posttraumatic symp-
toms have been reported to demonstrate a negative relationship with secure and
insecure–dismissing attachment but not with insecure–fearful and insecure–preoc-
cupied (Muller et al., 2000), suggesting that the shared self-view may protect against
negative outcomes related to traumatic events and situations.
Career Satisfaction
Career satisfaction is an individual’s perception of one’s own career achievement

with reference to self-determined standards (Nabi, 2001, 2003). Organizational fac-
tors are strongly associated with career satisfaction, including income, status, promo-
tion, development opportunities, organizational culture and commitment, work–life
integration, employer recognition, and opportunity for advancement (Barnett &
Bradley, 2007; 2008; Illies, & Reiter-Palmon, 2020; Johnson et al., 2020; Krueger
et al., 2002; Park, 2018). A consistent finding in the organizational literature is that
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person–workplace fit predicts job satisfaction and employee organizational commit-

ment (Klaic et al., 2018; Player et al., 2017; Sylva et al., 2019), with environment
fit being considerably influenced by internal psychological factors and dispositions
among employees, including personality (Steel et al., 2019), self-efficacy (Perera
et al., 2018), and temperament (Jaracz et al., 2017).
Less studied, but also predictive of career satisfaction is adult attachment pat-
terns. Regarding career satisfaction, empirical evidence suggests that adult attach-
ment is a predictor of employee-job dynamics and this relationship demonstrates
conceptually similar characteristics as early childhood attachment experiences.
Employees show differential responses to workplace environment experiences,
including hierarchical navigation, interpersonal relationships, and opportunity
seeking that are conceptually similar to young children exploring their proximal
environment. Based on this conceptualization, it would be predicted that securely
attached individuals would demonstrate greater work exploration, including seek-
ing out career opportunities, creating and developing strong interpersonal rela-
tionships, and managing negative affect more adeptly than insecurely attached
individuals, and as a consequence, would show higher levels of career and job
satisfaction.
Attachment style influences employee work-related behaviors, attitudes, and
responses (Harms, 2011; Hazan & Shaver, 1990; Richards & Schat, 2011), and dem-
onstrate that secure attachment facilitates work-related exploration activities, being
positively associated with career exploration (Littman-Ovadia et al. 2013), con-
fidence in receiving good evaluations by colleagues (Blustein et al., 1995), ability
to negotiate (Ketterson & Blustein, 1997), and progress in career decision making
(Hazan & Shaver, 1990). Insecure attachment, on the other hand, is correlated with
lower levels of productive behaviors, organizational commitment (Mikulincer &
Shaver, 2007), and job satisfaction (Hazan & Shaver, 1990).
Securely attached individuals depend on basic guidelines of the attachment sys-
tem such as engaging in instrumental action, asking for others’ support, and expec-
tation for successful management of the situation (Mikulincer, 1998). They tend to
engage in support-seeking behaviors during potential overload in the workplace and
are more likely to experience lower levels of workplace stress (Richards & Schat,
2007) and demonstrate a greater ability to redefine stressful situations as opportuni-
ties for growth (Mikulincer & Florian, 1995). These individuals have confidence in
others’ good intentions and actions (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991).
Secure attachment has been associated with trust in line managers, peers, and
top management (Simmons et al., 2009) as they are prone to share their goals not
because it creates a sense of security, but to gain intimacy with them (Mikulincer,
1998). Thanks to their relationship with coworkers, securely attached individu-
als build a social support system at work and in private life (Simmons et al., 2009)
and they are less likely to register psychosomatic and physical illnesses (Hazan &
Shaver, 1990). Secure attachment is related to a reduced focus on rejection and poor
performance compared to insecurely attached employees.
Individuals demonstrating a preoccupied adult attachment style demonstrate
greater concerns about rejection and performance evaluation (Hazan & Shaver,
1990). Moreover, preoccupied attachment style has been associated with greater
13
worry about workplace relationships and report less job satisfaction, more
stress, and greater burnout (Fraley & Shaver, 2008) and are less likely to engage
in emotion-based coping strategies during stressful situations. Dismissing and
fearful attachment styles are characterized by distance in the relationship, low
levels of emotional intensity, little reliance on partners, inattention to distress
indicators, and greater reticence in sharing personal information (Monteoliva
et al., 2012). Fearful attachment is related to the work environment being con-
ceptualized as an opportunity to avoid social interaction (Hardy & Barkham,
1994), and to maintain psychological independence (Rholes & Simpson, 2004).
Fearful and dismissing attachment is associated with lower levels of workplace
trust (Cranshaw & Game, 2010). Mikulincer and Florian (1995) reported that
insecure attachment is related to less likelihood of engaging in support-seeking
behaviors and greater distance between self and others (Erez, et al., 2008; Geller
& Bamberger, 2009) leading to low levels of workplace dissatisfaction (Hardy &
Barkham, 1994).
Findings related to organizational success and career performance and sat-
isfaction, however, do not indicate only negative relationships between inse-
cure attachment patterns and outcomes. Insecure–dismissing attachment, which
shares important characteristics related to self-image and ego strength with
secure attachment, has been associated with successful outcomes at work and
in career settings. Ein-Dor et al. (2012) reported evidence that in careers that
reward independence and autonomy, and which provide limited immediate sup-
port, an avoidant attachment was associated with positive outcomes and greater
career success. Insecure–dismissing attachment may also serve to promote resil-
ience in situations and environments where individuals are exposed to chronic
sources of stress associated with social inequalities (Bartley et al, 2007) primar-
ily as a defensive mechanism of ego protection.
Sheinbaum et al. (2015) reported that attachment style is related to affect,
social functioning, and cognitive appraisals. Individuals, for example, with dis-
missing attachment were more likely to show fewer positive states of well-being
and endorse a preference to be alone compared to securely attached individu-
als. A fearful attachment was related to having more stress and anxiety and a
greater likelihood to perceive rejection from others. Evidence suggests that
when presented with a choice, individuals tend to select careers and jobs that are
seen as reflecting personality characteristics (Alkhelil, 2016). Attachment style
is also related to self-disclosure, trust, and group functioning (Pistole, 1993;
Shechtman & Rybko, 2004).
These behavioral and perceptual differences manifest not only in family and
group dynamics, but also inform workplace experiences of individuals, includ-
ing leadership (Manning, 2003), resilience (Bartley et al, 2007), and the ability
to trust others (Vasquez et al., 2002). Related to satisfaction measures, attach-
ment has been found to predict general life satisfaction (Gnilka et al., 2013;
Wright & Perrone, 2010) and workplace and career satisfaction (Krauz et al.,
2001; Oh & Sung, 2011; Tziner et al., 2014).
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Attachment, Gender, and Career Satisfaction
One robust research finding in the organizational psychology literature is that

women report greater job satisfaction than do men, and this finding has been
replicated across different industries, organizations, and sociocultural contexts
(Redmond & McGuinness, 2020). Various explanations and theories have been
proposed to account for this finding. One plausible explanation is likely women’s
greater focus on maintaining family–work balance compared to men, especially in
cultures with a greater gender-based division of labor, and this finding may show
greater representation at higher-income levels (Redmond & McGuinness, 2017,
2020). Cultural definitions of gender roles and norms surrounding appropriate and
permitted expressions also suggest that men may be more willing to express displeas-
ure than women (Hodson, 1989. In Turkey, however, this relationship may point in
the opposite direction, as women have been reported to experience job overload as
they attempt to balance work demands and primary care for children and the family
(Bozkurt et al., 2011). Additional factors undermining job and career satisfaction for
women in Turkey include patriarchal attitudes toward women’s formal employment,
limited social welfare programs, and limited vertical job mobility (Kağnıcıoğlu, 2017).
Gender is also related to child-rearing practices in Turkey, with male and female
children experiencing different parenting practices, especially in the domains
of control and autonomy (Sunar, 2009; Telsiz, 1998). These differences are to an
extent generational in nature and overlap with family demographic variables, includ-
ing income, mothers’ employment, education, and geography (Sunar, 2009). While
there is limited research on gender differences in attachment style as a function of
parenting practices, the extant research among Turkish samples does suggest that
parenting does have a moderate effect on the development of attachment, with
authoritative parenting associated with higher scores on measures of secure attach-
ment (Doinita & Maria, 2015).
Current Study and Rationale
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of attachment styles in the
workplace and their relationship with the career satisfaction of employees in vari-
ous private organizations in Turkey. The private employment sector in Turkey
represents a unique environment characterized by economic upheaval and precar-
ity, and greater emphasis on collectivistic relational dynamics than represented in
studies on attachment and work in Western societal contexts. Previous research
on the relationship between adult attachment patterns and workplace experiences,
career satisfaction, and employee well-being has primarily focused on samples
drawn from societies and cultures scoring high on values associated with individ-
ualism and with greater economic stability (Hofstede, 2011; Simpson & Rholes,
2017). Cross-cultural research examining individuals from diverse societies sug-
gests that although attachment theory demonstrates cross-cultural application, it
does so with considerable cultural variation (Lin et al., 2017) as a function of the
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cultural emphasis on the individualism–collectivism continuum and is related to

economic development level (Strand et al., 2019).
Turkey scores lower on measures of individualism compared to the USA,
other English-speaking countries, and most Western European countries, so-
called WEIRD societies (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic)
(Henrich et al., 2010; Hofstede, 2011). In collectivist countries, relationships are
perceived as having greater importance and are more highly valued than in more
individualistic-oriented societies (Sunar & Fişek, 2005). Thus, it would be likely
that variation in attachment relationships and outcomes would be differently
experienced in Turkey, and by extension, across diverse cultures. For example,
Agishtein and Brumbaugh (2013) reported that attachment anxiety was associ-
ated with the country of origin, cultural values, and ethnicity. Although limited
research explores the role of cultural valuation systems on attachment patterns,
research demonstrates the utility of including a more diverse set of cultural
experiences (Butler et al., 2007; Harma & Sümer, 2016; Rothbaum et al., 2000;
Sorensen & Oyserman, 2010). Moreover, the historic economic crises in Turkey,
and the ongoing (2021–2022) economic disruption due to the COVID-19 pan-
demic, which includes economic precarity, high inflation, and employment dis-
ruption, all macro-level variables that are shared across developing and emerging
economies, suggest the necessity to pursue this investigation so as to confirm pre-
vious findings conducted in primarily Western developed countries.
Previous research suggests that career and occupational choice reflects inner
working structural components reflecting person-level variables, including tem-
perament, personality, and dispositional traits (He et al., 2021; Ripski et al., 2011;
Sui et al., 2021; Yusof et al., 2020). This study, therefore, includes a separate
investigation exploring attachment dimensions relative to employee selection of
the job sector, as different sectors of employment, have different expectations for
workers (Furnham & Fudge, 2008; van Dolen et al., 2002).
This study extends the literature on attachment styles and how they relate to
work experience and career satisfaction in a culture that places high importance
on the cultural value of collectivism (Kagitcibasi & Ataca, 2005; Kagitcibasi
et al., 2005). Building on previous research findings demonstrating a relation-
ship between organizational factors (employment time, position tenure, and
income) and career and workplace satisfaction (Aryee & Luk, 1996; Cerci
& Dumludag, 2019; Kara et al., 2018; Martínez-León et al., 2018) this study
examined structural and remunerative factors. Beyond these factors, the role
of attachment patterns in the quality and nature of interpersonal relationships
and person–environment fit suggests that as a domain of relational experience,
workplace experiences and career satisfaction would be experienced differently
by individuals scoring higher on measures of secure and insecure–dismissing
attachment through the mechanism of ego protection (Hayden et al., 2017;
Richards & Schat, 2011; Ronen & Zuroff, 2017; Vîrgă et al., 2019). Based on
previous studies highlighting the role of gender in explanatory models of career
and job satisfaction, this study includes an analysis of gender in relation to both
career satisfaction and attachment. Based on these considerations, the following
hypotheses guided the current study.
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Hypothesis 1: Attachment style will predict career satisfaction over and beyond
the influence of employee background and organizational factors, with both
secure attachment and insecure attachment—dismissing associated with greater
career satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2: Gender will demonstrate an interaction effect with organizational
factors and sector in predicting career satisfaction.
Methods and Materials
Ethical Compliance.
After receiving university ethical permission, participants completed an informed
consent waiver indicating their voluntary participation in the study. Participants
were asked to answer demographic questions and then a series of questions relating
to their working and employment situation, including salary, employment tenure,
sector, and experience in their current position. Next followed the measure of attach-
ment and career satisfaction. The participants were recruited using a non-random
convenience sampling technique. An online link was distributed through business
and social network platforms using SurveyMonkey, an online cloud-based survey
software program.
Participants
The current study included 298 employees working in different sectors including
management consultancy, retail, and consumer goods in Turkey. Univariate and
multivariate outlier analysis determined four outliers, which were excluded from the
analysis. There was 167 female (58%) and 121 male (42%) participants. Participants
ranged from 22 to 60 years of age (M = 31.8 years, SD = 7.4). The education level
varied from doctorate degree to associate degree. The greater part of the participants
(n = 153, 53.1%) had undergraduate degrees, very few (n = 10, 3.5%) had an associ-
ate degree, 36.1% of the participants (n = 104) had a graduate degree, 7.3% of the
participants (n = 21) had a doctorate degree. The work experience of the participants
varied, with 22% of the participants having 1–3 years of work experience and 16%
having more than 15 years. The greater part of the participants (35.8%) had been at
their current position for 1–3 years.
Main Sector
Workplace environment was assessed by asking individuals to indicate in which sec-

tor they were employed and to indicate for how long they had been employed in
their current sector. Employment sectors were divided into two main sectors based
on the existing literature (Kenessey, 1987). The first grouping included participants
employed in the secondary sector where raw materials are produced and processed
into manufactured goods and products. Sub-sectors of the secondary sector include
automotive, construction, energy, retail and consumer goods, pharmaceutical, and
13
chemicals. The second grouping was the service sector that involved the selling of
services and skills. Sub-sectors of the services sector are management consultancy,
logistics, information technology, and finance (Kenessey, 1987).
Attachment Styles
Attachment styles were assessed with the Relationship Styles Questionnaire (RSQ;
Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994). The RSQ is a 30-item self-report questionnaire that
measures general orientations to close relationships on a 7-point Likert scale, with
response options ranging from 1 (Not at all like me) to 7 (Very much like me). The
RSQ was adapted to Turkey by Sümer and Güngör (1999) and most recently, Deveci
Şirin and Şen Doğan, (2021) reported a reliability coefficient of 0.78 for the total
RSQ in a Turkish sample. In the current study, attachment subscales had acceptable
reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alphas), ranging from 0.53 to 0.78.
Career Satisfaction
Career satisfaction was assessed using the Career Satisfaction Scale (CSS) devel-
oped by Greenhaus et al. (1990). The scale was translated to Turkish and back-trans-
lated to English by two individuals fluent in both languages and a confirmatory fac-
tor analysis was conducted to assess the factor structure and reliability of the Turkish
translation. The CSS consists of 5 items with 7-point Likert-type scales ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). This scale has been widely used
in previous literature (Abele & Spurk, 20,011 Graves et al., 2012) and has demon-
strated high levels of reliability (Nae & Choi, 2022; Spurk et al., 2011, 2015) across
samples drawn from different cultures and societies (Krauz et al., 2001; Meredith
et al., 2007; Onadiran & Arogundade, 2021; Tziner et al., 2014; Wright et al., 2017).
Factor Analysis
As the CSS had not previously been translated to Turkish, confirmatory factor analy-
sis (CFA) was conducted to determine the factor structure of the scale. Initial analy-
sis indicated that all five CSS items demonstrated intercorrelations greater than 0.6.
The Kaiser–Meyer–Olin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.85, above the rec-
ommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1974), and Bartlett’s (1954) test of sphericity was
significant (χ2(10) = 1146.04, p < 0.05), indicating a non-random correlation matrix.
Both indices indicate the appropriateness of using factor analysis to determine the
factor structure of the CSS. The initial eigenvalues indicated one factor explained
75% of the variance and yielded one component. All five variables are loaded on
one factor at or above 0.80. Since there was only one factor, there was no rotation.
Results of the CFA indicate the Turkish translation of the CSS demonstrated accept-
able psychometric properties and was an appropriate measure of career satisfaction
in a Turkish sample. See Table 1.
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Table 1 Factor Loadings for Component Loading Communality

the Turkish Translation of the
Career Satisfaction Scale (CSS) Item 1 0.90 0.81
Item 2 0.93 0.86
Item 3 0.75 0.56
Item 4 0.90 0.81
Item 5 0.84 0.70
Data Analytic Strategy
All collected responses were coded and analyzed using the SPSS statistical analysis
software program (IBM Corp. Released 2013. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows,
Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.). A post hoc power analysis using G*Power
(Faul et al., 2007) to determine the power of the regression analysis was conducted.
A baseline sample size of 300 participants with 10 predictor variables was used for
the determination of power. The recommended effect sizes are: 0.02 (small effect),
0.15 (medium effect), and 0.35 (large effect) (Cohen, 1977). The alpha level used
for all analyses in the study was p = 05. The post hoc analyses revealed the statisti-
cal power for this study exceeded 0.99 for the detection of a moderate to large effect
using conventional standards (0.80), indicating sufficient power.
Results
The scores on each variable were computed and reliability coefficients were calcu-
lated. All scales and subscales had acceptable reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s
alphas) ranging from 0.53 to 0.96 (for reference, see: Sürücü & Maslakçı, 2020).
Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for the RSQ and CSS.
Table 2 Means and Standard Scale M SD

Deviations for Relationship
Styles Questionnaire (RSQ) and RSQ
Career Satisfaction Scale (CSS)
Secure 3.24 0.97
Fearful 3.79 0.86
Preoccupied 4.08 0.93
Dismissing 4.57 1.39
CSS
Item 1 4.69 1.62
Item 2 4.70 1.62
Item 3 4.19 1.71
Item 4 4.80 1.57
Item 5 4.70 1.51
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Correlational Analyses
Correlations were computed among the background characteristics and career sat-
isfaction. Results indicated that participant career satisfaction was positively and
significantly correlated with salary (r = 0.16, p < 0.05) and education (r = 0.28,
p < 0.05). No significant correlation was found between career satisfaction and age,
marital status, position experience, or work experience.
To examine the unique contribution of organizational characteristics and attach-

ment style in the explanation of career satisfaction, a hierarchical multiple regres-
sion analysis was performed in three steps. Variables that explain career satisfaction
were entered in two steps. In step 1, career satisfaction was the dependent variable,
and (a) age (b) marital status, and (c) educational level were the independent vari-
ables. In step 2, organizational variables (salary, position experience, work experi-
ence) were entered into the step 1 equation. In step 3, scores on the four attachment
styles were entered into the equation. Before the hierarchical multiple regression
analysis was performed, the independent variables were examined for collinearity.
Results of the variance inflation factor (all less than 2.0), and collinearity tolerance
(all greater than 0.64) suggest that the estimated βs are well established in the fol-
lowing regression model.
The hierarchical regression analysis for career satisfaction revealed that, at stage
one, demographic variables did not contribute significantly to the regression model,
R2 = . 005, F (3, 251) = 0.384, p > 0.01 and accounted for 0.7% of the variation in
career satisfaction. At stage two, demographic and organizational variables also did
not contribute to the regression model, R2 = . 03, F (6, 248) = 1.505, p > 0.01 and
accounted for 1% of the variation in career satisfaction. Finally, at stage three, add-
ing attachment styles to the model contributed significantly to the regression model,
R2 = . 09, F (10, 244) = 2.440, p < 0.01 and accounted for 5% of the variation in
career satisfaction. However, not all of the predictors are significant in the analy-
sis. According to these results, when all ten independent variables were included in
stage three of the regression model, salary, dismissing attachment style and secure
attachment style were significant predictors of career satisfaction. The summary of
the hierarchical analysis of variables predicting career satisfaction can be seen in
Table 3.

To examine Research Question 2, a 2 × 2 factorial analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was conducted with the employment sector and gender entered as
predictor variables and scores on the secure attachment measure entered as the
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Table 3 Summary of Variables β t R R2 ΔR2

Hierarchical Regression
Analysis for Variables Step 1 0.06 0.005 -0.007
Predicting Career Satisfaction
Education Level 0.06 0.36
Age -0.004 -0.30
Marital Status 0.20 0.94
Step 2 0.18 0.03 0.01
Age -0.01 -0.64
Salary 0.54 2.72*
Position Experience -0.16 -0.65
Work Experience -0.03 -0.14
Step 3 0.30 0.09 0.05*
Age -0.01 -1.13
Salary 0.54 2.74*
Position Experience -0.07 -0.30
Work Experience -0.05 -0.19
Fearful -0.05 -0.37
Dismissing 0.32 2.79*
Preoccupied 0.11 0.98
Secure 0.32 2.22*
*p < 0.05.
dependent variable. Prior to the data analysis, the data were screened for outli-
ers and normality of distribution. There were no outliers and a test of kurtosis
and skewness indicated no serious departures from normality (all coefficients
had values of less than 1). Levene’s test for homogeneity of group variance was
nonsignificant.
A 2 X 2 ANOVA was used to examine scores on secure attachment by gen-
der and employment sector (secondary and service). There was not a statistically
significant interaction effect (F = 1.65, p > 0.05) or main effect for the sector
(F = 0.91, p > 0.05). There was a statistically significant main effect for gender
(F = 8.58, p < 0.00). Male participants had a higher score on secure attachment
(M = 4.60, SD = 0.81) than female participants (M = 4.32, SD = 0.84), d = 0.34.
For fearful attachment, there was no interaction effect (F = 0.69, p > 0.05) or
effect of the sector (F = 1.33, p > 0.05). There was a statistically significant main
effect for gender (F = 5.59, p = 0.02), with female participants scoring higher
(M = 3.61, SD = 1.16) than male participants (M = 3.26, SD = 1.12), d = -0.30.
There was no significant interaction (F = 0.97, p > 0.05) or main effect for
either gender (F = 1.46, p > 0.05) or sector (F = 0.86, p > 0.05). Similarly, no
interaction effect was reported for insecure–preoccupied attachment (F = 0.48,
13
p > 0.05), and both gender (F = 0.44, p > 0.05) and sector (F = 0.41, p > 0.05)
were nonsignificant predictors. There was no main effect for insecure–dismiss-
ing attachment (F = 0.62, p > 0.05). An independent sample t test was conducted
to determine whether there existed a significant difference between females and
males in terms of career satisfaction. Results indicated that the mean career satis-
faction score of females was 4.54 (SD = 1.43) and was not significantly different
than that of males (M = 0.71, SD = 1.33), t (286) = 1.03, p = 0.30.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of attachment styles and
organizational factors within a cultural and social context differing from the preva-
lent environments in which this relationship has been researched. Specifically, cul-
tures scoring highly on measures of collectivism suggest the possibility of different
relationships between attachment and workplace satisfaction (Strand et al., 2019).
Additionally, workplace precarity and economic insecurity characterizing many
developing and emerging economies, especially during the ongoing COVID-19 pan-
demic, suggests the importance of further contextualization (Anh et al., 2019). To
this end, the current study examined adult attachment styles and career satisfaction
of employees in private organizations in Turkey.
In the first step of the regression analysis, none of the participant background
characteristics significantly predicted career satisfaction, while in the second step,
employee salary exhibited a significant positive relationship. The latter finding is
consistent with previous research (Faupel-Badger et al. 2017), although importantly,
absolute salary may demonstrate less predictive ability than perceived salary relative
to similarly employed individuals (Hammami et al., 2020). The results of the analy-
sis for the relationship between attachment style and career satisfaction revealed that
secure attachment and insecure–dismissing attachment were both positively and sig-
nificantly associated with greater levels of career satisfaction. Insecure–fearful and
insecure–preoccupied subscales were not significant.
Findings on the secure attachment dimension are consistent with the literature
reporting that higher levels of secure attachment predict career satisfaction, and
more generally, life satisfaction (Chris et al., 2009; Gould & Penley, 1984; Lévy-
Garboua & Montmarquette, 2004; Nickerson & Nagle, 2005; Sumer & Knight,
2001; Yang et al., 2008). One possible explanation for the consistent finding is that
people with secure attachment experience positive and healthy interpersonal rela-
tionships that include trust, reciprocal sharing, and mutual support (Karapınar,
2015; Leiter et al., 2015; Simpson and Rholes 2017). Considering that social capi-
tal, which includes personal relationships, is strongly correlated with life satisfaction
13
(Amati et al. 2018), it is expected that individuals higher in secure attachment would
evince greater career satisfaction. These results support the centrality of personal
relationships, both inside and outside work, in general well-being and domain-gen-
eral life satisfaction (Moghadam et al., 2016; Sharif et al., 2021; Temiz & Comert,
2018). One possible explanation for the current finding is that adult attachment has
been linked to work balance, with individuals exhibiting secure attachment in adult-
hood better able to experience greater levels of positive work–life balance (Sumer &
Knight, 2001).
The results related to insecure–dismissing attachment suggest a novel finding that
seems to reflect larger macro-level factors characteristic of developing and emerg-
ing economies, including Turkey, and differing from the economic context of previ-
ous research that has primarily studied workers from developed economies (Zhang
et al. 2021). Cranshaw and Game (2010) found that insecure–dismissing and inse-
cure–fearful attachment dimensions were associated with lower levels of career sat-
isfaction and trust of others. However, they also found that the insecure–dismissing
attachment style had similar work satisfaction levels in terms of job security and
opportunities for learning compared with securely attached individuals. According
to Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991), there is a similarity between dismissing and
secure attachment patterns. Both attachment forms are categorized as having a posi-
tive sense of self and internal working model and exhibit more constructive internal
regulatory mechanisms.
Correspondingly, the self-perception and attributional style characteristic of inse-
cure–dismissing attachment may lead to positive explanatory mechanisms associ-
ated with workplace satisfaction. In the current economic context of Turkey, it is
suggested that aspects of the dismissing attachment pattern may prove protective
for workers when faced with workplace challenges and larger macro-level economic
insecurity. Turkey has experienced multiple economic crises over the last 20 years
(Cömert & Yeldan, 2018; Susam & Bakkal, 2008), with corresponding ramifications
for employees, including the potential of job loss, income devaluation, and limits
on freedom, and these crises have only intensified during the ongoing COVID-19
pandemic (Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020) These economic crises have brought about
long-lasting effects on organizations and employees characterized by ambiguity and
stress.
Additionally, many organizations in Turkey do not have settled procedures and
processes for career management systems (Hay Group 2014). Therefore, employ-
ees with a positive self-image related to career management and workplace dynam-
ics, including in the perception of income, status loss, promotion or demotion, and
job opportunity, would potentially demonstrate greater resiliency. Studies in higher-
income cultures scoring higher on measures of individualism report a negative rela-
tionship between insecure–dismissing attachment and resiliency (Fraley et al., 1998;
Galatzer-Levy & Bonanno, 2013). However, research evidence suggests that indi-
viduals that engage in repression related to negative stimuli show lower levels of
response to negative events and, correspondingly, experience less negative affect
(Myers, 2000). While repression is associated with numerous deleterious health out-
comes, in the face of high levels of economic dysfunction, repression may serve
individuals to help blunt the negative experiences they face.
13
Research examining coping strategies in stressful conditions suggests that

repressing emotions or experience is a frequently employed defensive mecha-
nism. For example, Palomar (2008), reports that individuals living in poverty and
lower socioeconomic statuses (SES) show different coping mechanisms, includ-
ing greater adoption of avoidance and minimization strategies, compared to
higher SES individuals. Although sub-optimal, research suggests that repression
is related to greater resilience for individuals when confronted with traumatic
events (Coifman et al., 2007). Considering the context within which this study
was conducted, it is probable that repeated economic crises, as has happened and
continue (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic) to happen in Turkey, and also across the
developing world, with the concomitant effects of employment instability and
precarity, would serve as an ongoing traumatic experience for many individuals.
This finding would seem to generalize to other cultures and societies where indi-
viduals are faced with repeated crises and traumatic experiences in their environ-
ments, economic or otherwise.

The major finding related to Hypothesis 2 was a significant relationship between

secure attachment, gender, and career satisfaction, although no significant interac-
tion effects were found to be significant. One of the novel findings from this study
relates to the positive and significant relationship between insecure–dismissing
attachment and career satisfaction, but the lack of an interaction effect with gender,
although different than what has been reported in Western cultures, does find sup-
port in cross-cultural research not based in Western, more individualistic cultures
Previous research, has reported significant gender differences in attachment patterns
(Ardenghi et al., 2020; Brennan et al., 1991; Monteoliva et al., 2012), with men
exhibiting greater levels of insecure–dismissing attachment. Yet, research from non-
Western cultures suggests that this distinction may not represent a cross-culturally
valid finding (Schmitt, 2003).
We suggest one explanation for the nonsignificant findings related to gender dif-
ferences in insecure–dismissing attachment and career satisfaction relates to the
cultural context of participants. Specifically, in cultures that place a high value on
collectivism, like Turkey, support seeking in difficult and stressful situations, as
characteristic of individuals scoring high on secure attachment, may be lower with
insecure–dismissing attachment and represent a reflection of a broader-based coping
strategy. In such a context, ego-protective dynamics, as evinced with insecure–dis-
missing attachment, would function to promote well-being when faced with broader-
based social stressors. Schmitt (2003), in a cross-cultural study of 62 cultures, sug-
gested that a lack of gender differences in insecure–dismissing attachment may be
more ecologically and economically based rather than representing a fundamental
gender difference. Thus, while individuals high in secure attachment would demon-
strate greater social support seeking when dealing with problems, individuals high
in insecure–dismissing attachment may be less willing to do so, and instead, rely on
ego-protective mechanisms (Wise & Mengüç, 2021).
13
Contributions of the Current Study
The contribution of this study to the current literature consists, first, of the
finding that secure attachment levels in adulthood predict career satisfaction
for workers in Turkey beyond what has been traditionally seen as determining
factors in career satisfaction (e.g., salary, promotion opportunities). Securely
attached individuals demonstrate several characteristics that translate to job-
related success, including more positive interpersonal relationships (Scrima
et al. 2015), problem-solving competence (Arslan et al., 2012), hierarchical
navigation (Ronen & Zuroff, 2017), and problem-focused coping strategies
(Johnstone & Feeney, 2015). In contexts with challenging economic situations
and repeated exposure to social stresses related to ongoing and chronic eco-
nomic pressure, individuals scoring higher on measures of secure attachment in
adulthood are more likely to show the least amount of distress and exhibit better
adjustment.
While insecure–avoidant and insecure–fearful attachment scores were not
predictive of career satisfaction, there was a demonstrated relationship with
insecure–dismissing attachment. Considering the overlap in the ego-protective
dynamics in both secure and dismissing attachment, it is suggested that indi-
viduals scoring higher on the dismissing attachment dimension may experi-
ence emotional and cognitive protection from difficult work-related experi-
ences, even though this protection may come at the cost of poorer physical
health and long-term outcomes. Our findings related to dismissing attachment
scores and career satisfaction suggest a connection with research demonstrat-
ing ego-protective functions and resiliency among low-SES individuals facing
traumatic experiences, both chronic and acute, insofar as economic crises are
considered as traumatic inputs into the work–life of an individual. This find-
ing may generalize beyond Turkey and suggest unique dynamics between adult
attachment patterns and workplace and career experiences within economies
demonstrating instability of employment, inflation, and organizational disrup-
tion related to economic crises, as demonstrated globally during the COVID-
19 pandemic.
Further, results in the current study did not point to any gender-based differ-
ence in career satisfaction among participants. As discussed above, this finding
is similar to research on gender differences in job and career satisfaction con-
ducted cross-culturally but does differ from previous research examining gender
differences in Turkey. This is partly due to the economic status of the partici-
pants in this study, as previous research in Turkey demonstrating a gender dif-
ference in satisfaction levels has derived largely from middle- and lower-SES
groups. The current sample consisted entirely of middle to upper-SES employed
individuals and as such, findings are similar to previous studies in Western coun-
tries. A final contribution of the current study relates to the translation and vali-
dation of the Career Satisfaction Scale in Turkish, which provides researchers
across different disciplines with a new instrument to study adults in workplace
settings.
13
Limitations and Implications for Future Research
The correlational and cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow for state-
ments of causality, but the causal precedence in the variable sequence is sugges-
tive. Self-report measures are vulnerable to response bias as the self-assessment
methods assess the explicit level of the internal representation of an individual
and results should be interpreted with this in mind. Third, although attachment
style has been indicated as a universal domain of individual differences, the
measure may demonstrate cross-cultural differences related to attachment styles
and organization satisfaction, although findings in Turkey do suggest strong simi-
larities with previous research (Sumer & Gungor, 1999).
These findings highlight some potentially fruitful directions for future inquiry,
including how different organizational cultures may maximize employee suc-
cess and productivity through recognition of motivational elements in work per-
formance. Recognition of employee psychological dispositional characteristics,
including personality and attachment behaviors, can assist human resource man-
agers and organizational support systems to integrate diverse employee back-
ground characteristics into workplace culture to promote greater organizational
success. More importantly, however, is the recognition that factors beyond the
organizational context influence employee career satisfaction, and by extension,
employee success, in an intersectional dynamic reflecting the person–environ-
ment fit between individual-level attachment variability and macro-level struc-
tural forces.
Funding No funding was received for this research study at any stage.
Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly
available due to the possibility that information could compromise research participant privacy/consent,
but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declarations
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent All participants completed an informed consent specifying their participation was vol-
untary and anonymous and explained the possible risks and benefits of participation.
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Trends in Psychology (2022) 30:763–787

Career Satisfaction and Adult Attachment Style Among

Ryan Macey Wise1 · Burcu Alsan1 · Elham Taleb1

Accepted: 1 February 2022 / Published online: 17 February 2022

Keywords Attachment · Career satisfaction · Organizational psychology · Turkey

Career Satisfaction and Adult Attachment StyleAmong Working

Determining predictors of career satisfaction is important for evaluating employee

* Ryan Macey Wise

Career satisfaction is an individual’s perception of one’s own career achievement

person–workplace fit predicts job satisfaction and employee organizational commit-

Attachment, Gender, and Career Satisfaction

One robust research finding in the organizational psychology literature is that

Current Study and Rationale

cultural emphasis on the individualism–collectivism continuum and is related to

Methods and Materials

Workplace environment was assessed by asking individuals to indicate in which sec-

Table 1 Factor Loadings for Component Loading Communality

Data Analytic Strategy

Table 2 Means and Standard Scale M SD

To examine the unique contribution of organizational characteristics and attach-

Hypothesis 2: Gender will demonstrate an interaction effect with organizational

To examine Research Question 2, a 2 × 2 factorial analysis of variance

Table 3 Summary of Variables β t R R2 ΔR2

Research examining coping strategies in stressful conditions suggests that

Hypothesis 2: Gender will demonstrate an interaction effect with organizational

The major finding related to Hypothesis 2 was a significant relationship between

Contributions of the Current Study

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36.

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