THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

IN ASSOCIATION WITH
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TEACHERS’ COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE WITH

EDUCATION

(FIRST YEAR)

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
PHY 120

UNITS & MEASUREMENTS, SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND VECTORS,

LINEAR MOTION, PROJECTILE MOTION AND EQUILIBRIUM OF
FORCES

HANDOUT ONE

@TVTC, 2023
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................1
Quantities, Units and Measurements .........................................................................1
Physical Quantity ........................................................................................................................ 1
Base Quantity .......................................................................................................................... 1
The International System of Units (SI).................................................................................... 2
Combinations of SI Base Units (Derived Units) ..................................................................... 2
Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................................. 2
Conversion of Units ................................................................................................................. 4
Scientific Notation .....................................................................................................4
Significant Figures ...................................................................................................................... 4
Rules for significant figures ........................................................................................................ 5
Prefixes of Base Units ................................................................................................................. 5
Scalar and Vector Quantities .....................................................................................7
Vector Addition: Graphical method ............................................................................................ 7
Vector Addition: Trigonometric Method .................................................................................... 7
Resolving a Vector ...................................................................................................................... 8
Guidelines on Addition of Vectors............................................................................................ 10
Linear Motion ..........................................................................................................12
Displacement (s) ........................................................................................................................ 12
Velocity (v) ............................................................................................................................... 12
Instantaneous Velocity .............................................................................................................. 13
Acceleration (a) ......................................................................................................................... 13
Deriving the equations of motion .............................................................................................. 14
Acceleration Due to Gravity ..................................................................................................... 17
Newton’s Laws of Motion .......................................................................................18
Newton’s First Law of Motion .................................................................................................. 18
Newton’s Second Law of Motion ............................................................................................. 18
Newton’s Third Law of Motion ................................................................................................ 19
Forces .......................................................................................................................20

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 Examples of forces in Physics ................................................................................................... 20
Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces ................................................................................................ 21
Conditions for Equilibrium ....................................................................................................... 21
First condition for Equilibrium .............................................................................................. 21
Second Condition for Equilibrium (Moments and Torques) ................................................. 22
Projectile Motion......................................................................................................22
Prescribed Books......................................................................................................26
Recommended Books ..............................................................................................26

II
Introduction
Physics is one of the fundamental natural sciences; it involves the study of universal laws, and of
the behaviours and relationships among a wide range of physical phenomena. It involves the
study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such energy
and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand
how the universe behaves. Like all other sciences, physics is based on experimental observations
and quantitative measurements. The main objective of physics is to find the fundamental laws
that govern natural phenomena and to use them to develop theories that can predict the results of
future experiments. The fundamental laws used in developing theories are expressed in the
language of mathematics, the tool that provides a bridge between theory and experiment.
Through the learning of physics, students will acquire conceptual and procedural knowledge
relevant to their daily lives. In addition to the relevance of physics, the study of physics will
enable students to develop an understanding of its practical applications in a wide variety of
fields. With a good foundation in physics, students should be able to appreciate both the beauty
and quantitative nature of physical phenomena, and the role of physics in many important
developments in education, engineering, medicine, economics and other fields of science and
technology. Study of the contributions, issues and problems related to physics will enable
students to develop an integrative view of the relationships that hold between science,
technology, society and the environment.

Quantities, Units and Measurements

Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is a property of a material, body, substance or phenomenon that can be
quantified by measurement. A physical quantity can be quantified as the combination of a
numerical value and a unit. For example, the physical quantity mass can be quantified as n kg,
where n is the numerical value and kg is the unit. For example, length, temperature, distance and
time are physical quantities. A physical quantity possesses at least two characteristics in
common, one is numerical magnitude and other is unit in which it is measured. Generally,
physical quantities include base quantities and derived quantities.

Base Quantity
A base quantity is a physical quantity that is chosen by convention, where no quantity in the set
can be expressed in terms of the others. Seven base quantities have been defined by the
International System of Quantities (ISQ), as summarized in Table 1.1.

1
The International System of Units (SI)
The International System of Units (SI) is the modern system of measurement with seven base
units and a number of additional units called derived units, which can always be represented as
products of powers of the base units. There seven base SI units. These are listed in the table
below. These units are called base units because none of them can be expressed as combinations
of the other six.
Table 1.1 SI Base Units
Base Quantity Symbol for Symbol for SI Base Unit SI Unit
Quantity Dimension Symbol
Length l L
Mass m M
Time t T
Electric current I I
Temperature T θ
Amount of substance n N
Luminous intensity IV J

Combinations of SI Base Units (Derived Units)

A derived quantity is a quantity in a system of quantities that is defined in terms of the base
quantities of that system. Table 1.2 below lists some examples of derived quantities, their units,
and for some, the special names assigned.
Table 1.2 Derived Units
Derived Quantity Derived unit Symbol
Velocity/speed
Acceleration
Force
Energy/work
Frequency

Dimensional Analysis
In physics the word dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity. The distance between
two points for example, can be measured in feet or meters, which are different ways of
expressing the dimension of length. The symbols used to specify the dimensions of length, mass
and time are L, M and T, respectively. Brackets [ ] are used to denote the dimensions of a
physical quantity.

2
In this notation for example, the dimensions of velocity v are written v = L T , and the
dimensions of area A are A = L2 .

Task 1.1

What are the dimensions of the following quantities?

i. Volume
ii. Acceleration

In physics it is often necessary to deal with mathematical expressions that relate different
physical quantities. One way to analyse such expressions, called dimensional analysis, makes use
of the fact that dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities. Adding masses to lengths, for
example, makes no sense, so it follows that quantities can be added or subtracted only if they
have the same dimensions.

Why use Dimensional Analysis?

Because it is easy to make errors when solving problems, dimensional analysis can be used to
check the consistency of the results. When the dimensions in an equation are not consistent, that
indicates that an error has been made in a prior step.

Examples

1. Show that the expression v = v0 + at is dimensionally correct, where v and v0 represent

velocities, a is an acceleration and t is a time interval.
2. Find the relationship between a constant acceleration a , speed v , and distance r from the
origin for a particle travelling in a circle.

Solution

1. Analyse each term, finding its dimensions, and then check to see if all the terms agree with
each other.
v = v0  = L
T
at = at  = L2 (T ) = L
T T

All the terms agree, so the equation is dimensionally correct.

v2
2. a =
r

3
Conversion of Units
Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from one system to another. For example, suppose we
want to convert 15.0 in. to centimeters. Since 1 in. = 2.54 cm, we have;

 2.54cm 
15.0in. = 15.0in.    = 38.1cm
 1.00in. 

Examples

1. If a car is travelling at a speed of 38.9 m/s, is the driver exceeding the speed limit of 100
km/hr?
2. The traffic light turns green, and the driver of a high-performance car slams the accelerator to
the floor. The meter registers 22.0 m/s2. Convert this reading to km/min2.
3. Convert 4.5 × 103 kg/m3 to g/cm3.

Solutions

1. 38.9 m/s = 140.0 km/hr, therefore, the driver is exceeding the speed limit.
2. 79.2 km/min2
3. 4.50 g/cm3

Scientific Notation
In science one often needs to work with very large or very small numbers. These can be written
more easily in scientific notation. Scientific notation is a way of expressing numbers that are too
large or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form. In scientific notation, all numbers
are written in the general form
d  10 e
Where d is a decimal number between 0 and 10, e is known as the exponent and is an integer. If
e ˃ 0, it represents how many times the decimal point in d should be moved to the right. If e ˂ 0,
then it represents how many times the decimal point in d should be moved to the left.
For example:
3.24 × 103 represents 3240 (the decimal point moved three places to the right)
3.24 × 10-3 represents 0.00324 (the decimal point moved three places to the left)
Significant Figures
Significant figures are critical when reporting scientific data because they give the reader an idea
of how well you could actually measure or report your data. The significant figures of a number
are digits that carry meaningful contributions to its measurement resolution.
Of the significant figures in a number, the most significant is the position with the highest
exponent value (the left-most in normal decimal notation), and the least significant is the

4
position with the lowest exponent value (the right-most in normal decimal notation). For
example, in the number “123”, the “1” is the most significant figure as it counts hundreds (10 2),
and “3” is the least significant figure as it counts ones (100).
Rules for significant figures
The rules for identifying significant figures when writing or interpreting numbers are as follows:
1. ALL non-zero digits are considered significant.
• For example, 91 has two significant figures while 123.45 has five significant figures.
2. ALL zeroes appearing anywhere between non-zero digits are significant.
• For example, 101.1203 has seven significant figures.
3. Zeroes after a non-decimal number (TRAILING zeroes) may or may not be significant.
• For example,
4. ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY to the right of the decimal point AND at
the end of the number are significant.
• For example, 2.300 has four significant figures.
5. Zeroes to the left of the significant figures (LEADING zeroes) are NOT significant.
• For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures.
Examples
How many significant figures are present in the following numbers?
Number Number of significant figures Rule(s)
48923
3.967
900.06
0.0004
8.1000
501.040
3000000
10.0

Prefixes of Base Units

A prefix is a group of letters that are placed in front of a word. In the case of units, the prefixes
have a special use. The kilogram (kg) is a simple example. 1 kg is equal to 1000 g or 1 × 10 3 g.
Grouping the 103 and the g together we can replace the 103 with the prefix k (kilo). Therefore,
the k takes the place of the 103.

5
The table below lists some of these prefixes
Prefix Symbol Exponent
Yotta Y
Zetta Z
Exa E
Peta P
Tera T
Giga G
Mega M
Kilo K
Hecto H
Deca Da
Yocto y
Zepto z
Atto a
Femto f
Pico p
Nano n
Micro µ
Milli m
Centi c
Deci d

Examples:
1. 40000 m =
2. 0.001 g =
3. 2.5 × 106 N =
4. 250000 A =
5. 0.000000075 =
6. 3 × 10-7 mol =

6
Scalar and Vector Quantities
A scalar quantity is a quantity that is fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
Examples are mass, volume, frequency etc.
A vector quantity is a quantity that is described fully by both a magnitude and a direction.
Examples are displacement, velocity, force etc.
Vector Addition: Graphical method
A vector can be represented by an arrow line whose length is proportional to a certain vector
quantity and whose direction indicates the direction of the quantity.
To add vector B to vector A, draw B so that its tail is at the head of A. The vector sum A + B is
the vector R (resultant vector) that joins the tail of A and the head of B.
The order in which A and B are added is not significant, so that A + B = B + A. This can be
shown in the figures below.

A + B = A = R
B

B
A
B + A = =
R
R

Vector Addition: Trigonometric Method

R
B

θ
A

It is easy to apply trigonometry to find the resultant R if two vectors A and B that are
perpendicular to each other. The magnitude of the resultant is given by the Pythagoras theorem
as:

R = A 2 + B2

7
 as θ = tan −1  
B B
The angle θ between R and A may be found from tanθ =
A A
The angle θ gives the direction of the vector.
Resolving a Vector
Consider a vector F in a rectangular coordinate system as shown in the figure below.

F
Fy

θ
x
Fx

The vector F may be resolved into two component vectors Fx and Fy, where;
Fx is the horizontal component of F
Fy is the vertical component of F

The magnitudes of these components are:

Fx = Fcosθ and Fy = Fsinθ

The magnitude of the resultant vector is given by:

F = Fx + Fy
2 2

The direction of the vector F is given by

F 
θ = tan −1  y 
 Fx 

Examples
1. A woman walks eastward for 5 km and then northward for 10 km. How far is she from her
starting point? If she had walked directly to her destination, in what direction would she have
headed?

8
Solution
Distance = 5km + 10km = 15km

R = 52 + 10 2 = 25 = 11.2km
5
θ = tan −1   = 27 ο east_of_north
 10 
Therefore, she would have walked 11.2 km in the direction 27° east of north.

2. A force 𝐅 = 10N is exerted on the wagon in the figure below, at an angle of θ = 30° above
the horizontal. Find the horizontal and vertical components of this force.

F
30ᵒ

Solution

F
Fy
30°
Fx

Fx Fy
cosθ = sinθ =
F F
Fx = Fcosθ Fy = Fsinθ
Fx = 10N  cos30 Fy = 10N  sin30
Fx = 8.66N Fy = 5.00N

3. A car weighing 3000 N is on a hill that makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. Find the
components of the car’s weight parallel and perpendicular to the road.

car

20 ᵒ

9
Solution

θ Wper
W
Wpar
θ

Wper Wpar
cosθ = sinθ =
W W
Wper = Wcosθ Wpar = Wsinθ
Wper = 3000N  cos20 Wpar = 3000N  sin20
Wper = 2819N Wpar = 1026N

Guidelines on Addition of Vectors

1. Choose a suitable coordinate system and label all vectors clearly.
2. Find the angle of each vector with respect to the positive x-axis in the anticlockwise
direction.
3. Resolve each vector into its components.
4. Add all the x-components to obtain Rx, the x-component resultant.
5. Add all the y-components to obtain Ry, the y-component resultant.
6. Find the total resultant vector R using:

R = Rx + Ry
2 2

7. Find the direction of the resultant vector using:

R 
θ = tan −1  y 
 Rx 

Example: Find the components of vector c = 30 m shown below.

c c

65°
(a) (b)

10
 c
250°
120°
(c)
c

(d)

Solutions
a.
cx cy
cosθ = sinθ =
c c
c x = ccosθ c y = csinθ
c x = 30m  cos65 c y = 30m  sin65
c x = 12.7m c y = 27.2m
b.
cx cy
cosθ = sinθ =
c c
c x = ccosθ c y = csinθ
c x = 30m  cos90 c y = 30m  sin90
cx = 0 c y = 30.0m
c.
cx cy
cosθ = sinθ =
c c
c x = ccosθ c y = csinθ
c x = 30m  cos120 c y = 30m  sin120
c x = -15.0m c y = 26.0m

d.
cx cy
cosθ = sinθ =
c c
c x = ccosθ c y = csinθ
c x = 30m  cos250 c y = 30m  sin250
c x = -10.3m c y = −28.2m

11
Linear Motion
This chapter is about how things move in a straight line or more scientifically how things move
in one dimension.
Displacement (s)
This is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a point. It quantifies both the
distance and the direction of motion along a straight line from the initial position to the final
position of the point.

s
sy

θ
x
sx

Displacement is a vector quantity. The magnitude is given by:

s = sx + sy
2 2

The direction is given by:

s 
θ = tan −1  y 
 sx 
Velocity (v)

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time. If the change in

displacement is Δs = s2 – s1 and occurs in time interval Δt = t2 – t1, then the average velocity is

given by:
Δs s 2 − s1
v= =
Δt t 2 − t1

The magnitude of velocity is called the speed.

12
Example
A man walks 4 km east, then walks 3 km north in 30 minutes. Find:
a. Distance covered
b. Displacement
c. Average velocity
d. Average speed
Solution
a. Distance covered = 4 km +3 km = 7 km

b. s = 4 2 + 32 = 25 = 15km
Displaceme nt 5km 60min
c. Velocity ( v) = =  = 10km/hr
Time 30min 1hr
Distance 7km 60min
d. Speed (v) = =  = 14km/hr
Time 30min 1hr

Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object or body at a specific instant in time. The
instantaneous velocity is given by:
Δs
v = lim
Δt→0 Δt

Δs
The notation lim means to take the limiting value of as Δt approaches zero.
Δt → 0 Δt
Note: instantaneous velocity at a given point is equal to the gradient of the curve at that point in
question.
Acceleration (a)
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. The average acceleration is given by:
Δv v − u
a= =
Δt t
Where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity.
If the acceleration is constant, the graph is a straight line and if acceleration is variable, then the
graph is a curve.
The slope or gradient of the velocity-time graph or curve gives the instantaneous acceleration.

13
Deriving the equations of motion
Before we start to derive the equations of motion, it is important to make sure we know the
standard symbols for describing the movement of an object. Conventionally, we use the
following symbols to represent the properties of an object.
property symbol
Displacement s
Initial velocity u
Final velocity v
Time t
Acceleration a

Now let’s imagine an object travelling with velocity u m/s. If our object experiences an
unbalanced force, this will cause the object to accelerate at a m/s2. The force acts for a time t and
so the acceleration must also last for time t. After t seconds, the object has final velocity v m/s.
We can show this motion on a velocity-time graph.

v
Velocity (m/s)

t
Time (s)
The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives us the acceleration a.
Δv v − u
gradient = = =a
Δt t
This equation can be rearranged to obtain our first equation of motion. Starting with
v−u
a=
t
Multiplying both sides by t to remove the fraction gives;
v − u = at

14
And moving the -u to the other side of the equation gives;
v = u + at
This is our first equation of motion.

To derive the second equation of motion, we can use the just above diagram and obtain an
equation for the displacement s of the object. The area under a velocity-time graph is equal to the
displacement of the object.
The simplest way to calculate the area is to split it up into smaller shapes. We can choose shapes
such as rectangles and triangles, or we can choose the trapezium. We can use a triangle and a
rectangle as shown below.

v
Velocity (m/s)

1
u
2

t
Time (s)
The sum of areas 1 and 2 is equal to the displacement. Calculating the areas individually we get:
Area 1 (Area of a rectangle)
Area = length  breadth = ut
Area 2 (Area of a right angled triangle)
1
Area =  base  height
2
1
Area =  t  (v − u )
2
But (v-u) = at, therefore,
1 1
Area =  t  at = at 2
2 2
The total displacement s is the sum of areas 1 and 2.
s = Area1 + Area2

15
And so:
1
s = ut + at 2
2
This is our second equation of motion.
We will now use both of the equations we have obtained so far to reach the third equation of
motion. This will require a bit of algebra which will be shown below. Notice that both
1
s = ut + at 2 and v = u + at include the time variable t. There will be some situations when we
2
do not have any information about time and so that is why it is a good idea to derive an equation
that does not have a t term. To do this, we rearrange our first equation ( v = u + at ) to get
v−u 1
t= and use this to replace t wherever it appears in the second equation. So s = ut + at 2
a 2
becomes:

v−u 1 v−u
2

s = u  + a 
 a  2  a 
Taking a out of the parentheses we get:
 v − u  1 (v − u)
2
s = u + a
 a  2 a2
Cancelling out the a term gives:
 v − u  1 (v − u)
2
s = u +
 a  2 a
Removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the equations by 2a, we get:
2as = 2u(v - u) + (v - u) 2
Multiplying out the parentheses gives:
2as = 2uv - 2u 2 + v 2 − 2uv + u 2
Collecting and simplifying common terms gives:
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
This is the third equation of motion.

Examples
1. A truck travelling at 22.5 m/s decelerates at 2.27 m/s2.
a. How much time does it take for the truck to stop?
b. How far does it travel while stopping?

16
2. The brakes of a car whose initial velocity is 30 m/s are applied and the car receives an
acceleration of -2m/s2. How far will it have gone:
a. When its velocity has decreased to 15 m/s?
b. When it has come to a stop?
Solution
1.
a. u = 22.5 m/s a = -2.27 m/s2 v=0 t=?
From_v = u + at
v−u
t=
t
0 − 22.5
t= = 9.91s
− 2.27

b. u = 22.5 m/s a = -2.27 m/s2 v = 9.91 s s=?

From_s = ut + (1/2)at 2
s = (22.5  9.91) + (0.5)( −2.27)(9.91 ) 2
s = 223 − 111.5 = 112m
2.
a. 169 m
b. 225 m

Acceleration Due to Gravity

The acceleration of a body moving only under the force of gravity is g, the gravitational (or free-
fall) acceleration, which is directed vertically downward.
On Earth, g = 9.81 m/s2; the value varies from place to place. On the Moon, the free-fall
acceleration is 1.6 m/s2.
The equations of motion for vertical motion are:
v y = u y + gt 2
1
y = u y t + gt 2
2
v y = u y + 2gy
2 2

As a matter of convention, we will take all vectors UP as POSITIVE and all vectors DOWN as
NEGATIVE, but g is NEGATIVE both UP and DOWN.

17
Examples
1. A stone is thrown straight upward and it rises to a height of 20 m. with what speed was it
thrown?
2. A stone is thrown straight upward with a speed of 20 m/s. It is caught on its way down at a
point 5 m above where it was thrown. Assuming air resistance is negligible,
a. How fast was it going when it was caught?
b. How long did the trip take?
Solution
1.
a. v = 0 y = 20 m g = -9.81 m/s2 u=?
from_v2y = u 2y + 2gy
u 2y = v 2y − 2gy
u y = v 2y − 2gy
u y = 0 − 2( −9.81)(20)
u y = 20m/s
2.
a. vy = -17.4 m/s (we attach a negative sign because the stone is moving downward)
b. 3.8 s

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law of Motion
An object or body will remain in a state of rest or move with a velocity that is constant in
magnitude and direction, unless acted upon by an unbalanced (net) force. This is also known as
the law of inertia.
Inertia is the tendency of an object to continue in its original state of motion. Or simply put,
inertia is the difficulty a body has in changing the state of its motion. Hence mass is a measure of
inertia because it is a measure of the object’s resistance to changes in its motion due to a force.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
If a resultant force ‘F’ acts on a body of mass ‘m’, it will cause the body to accelerate with
acceleration ‘a’ in the direction of the resultant force. The acceleration of the body will be
directly proportional to the resultant force and indirectly proportional to the mass of the body.

18
 F
The mathematical representation is a  which gives F = ma .
m
In component form Fx = ma x , Fy = ma y and Fz = ma z
Force is a pull or push experienced by a body. When a net or unbalanced force acts on a body,
v−u
the body accelerates. Since F = ma and a =
t
v−u
F = m 
 t 
mv - mu
F=
t
mv is the final linear momentum pf and mu is the initial linear momentum pi. Therefore,
p
F=
t
Hence force is also defined as the rate of change of linear momentum with time. Also
p = F  t is known as impulse. Impulse is defined as a very large force acting for a very short
time.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of equal magnitude on body A,
but in the opposite direction. Or simply put, for every action, there is simultaneously an equal
and opposite reaction. The action-reaction forces do not cancel out because they act on different
bodies.
Example
A man of mass M = 75 kg and woman of mass m = 55 kg stand facing each other on an ice rink
(surface for ice skating) both wearing ice skates. The woman pushes the man with a horizontal
force of F = 85 N in the x-direction. Assume the ice is frictionless.
a. What is the man’s acceleration?
b. What is the reaction force acting on the woman?
c. Calculate the woman’s acceleration.
Solution
a.
F = Ma M
F
aM =
M
85
aM = = 1.13m/s 2
75
19
 b. -85N
c. 1.55m/s2

Forces
A force is anything that can cause a change to objects. Forces can:
• Change the shape of an object
• Move or stop an object
• Change the direction
A force can be classified as either a contact or non-contact force. A contact force must touch or
be in contact with an object to cause a change. Examples of contact forces are:
• The force that is used to pull or push things, like on a door to open or close it.
• The force of the wind to turn a windmill
A non-contact force does not have to touch an object to cause a change. Examples of non-contact
forces are:
• The force due to gravity
• The force due to magnetism, like a magnet pulling a paper clip toward itself.
The Newton (N) is the SI unit of force. One Newton (1 N) is the resultant force which will give a
one kilogramme (1 kg) mass an acceleration of one meter per second squared (1 m/s2).

Examples of forces in Physics

1. Weight (W)
The weight of an object is the gravitational force acting downward on an object.
2. Tensile Force (T)
The tensile force acting on a string is the applied force tending to stretch it. The magnitude of
the tensile force is the tension.
3. Normal Force (FN)
The normal force on an object that is being supported by a surface is the component of the
supporting force that is perpendicular to the surface.
4. Friction (Ff)
The frictional force is force acting on an object that opposes the moving or sliding of that
object on an adjacent surface with which it is in contact. The friction force is parallel to the

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 surface and opposite to the direction of motion. Only when the applied force exceeds the
maximum static friction force will an object begin to slide.

Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces

If the external forces act in such a way that there is no change in its translational and rotational
states of the body, then the body is said to be in equilibrium. Translational equilibrium is when a
body remains at rest or moves with a constant speed in a straight line. Rotational equilibrium is
when a body rotates at constant angular speed.
Conditions for Equilibrium

First condition for Equilibrium

It states that the vector sum of all the external forces acting on a body (at rest or moving at
constant speed) is zero. i.e. F = 0.
Or in component form, that;

F x = 0 and F y =0
That is, the resultant of all external forces acting on the object must be zero.
Steps in Solving Problems
1. Draw a free body diagram and label all the forces acting on the body.
2. Split each force into x and y components with proper sines and cosines.
3. Write down the equations involved.
4. Solve the equations for the unknowns.

Examples
1. The object below weighs 400 N and hungs at rest. Find the tensions in the three cords that
hold it.

37° 53°

400 N

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Second Condition for Equilibrium (Moments and Torques)
It states that the sum of the torques acting on a body must be zero. Or the algebraic sum of the
clockwise and anticlockwise moments on it must be zero.
The turning effect of a force is known as the moment of force. It is the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot or point where the
object will turn.
Moment of force = Force  Perpendicular distance
Examples
1. Consider the situation shown in the figure below.

Rope

¾L

800 N

The uniform 0.60 KN beam of length L is hinged at P. Find the tension in the rope.

Projectile Motion
An object that moves in a vertical plane under the influence of the gravitational acceleration with
some initial velocity u and in an arbitrary direction θ is undergoing projectile motion.
A projectile moves horizontally at constant speed (with no acceleration along the horizontal) as it
falls vertically with an acceleration g.
In general, we resolve velocity along the x and y axis and study the motion of the projectile
along x and y axis independent of each other.
Consider an object that is projected with a velocity u at an angle θ as shown in the figure below.

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 y

v vy = 0 vx
vy
θ
vx vx
u θ
uy H vy v

θ vx
ux θ x
R
vy
v

v = vx2 + v y2

u x = u cosθ
u y = u sin θ

v 
θ = tan −1  y 
 vx 
The parabolic path followed by the projectile is called the trajectory and the angle θ is called the
angle of departure. The velocity vector v changes in both magnitude and direction
The x – component of velocity remains constant in time because there is no acceleration along
the horizontal direction.
The y – component of velocity is zero at the peak of the path.
R is the maximum distance along the x – axis and is known as the range. It is given by:
u 2 sin 2
R=
g
At θ = 45°, R is maximum as;
u2
R= because 2θ = 2(45) = 90 and sin 90 = 1
g
H is the maximum height reached by the projectile. It is reached when the vertical component vy
becomes zero. It is found as follows:
From v 2 = u 2 + 2as
v y2 = u y2 − 2 gH (the negative comes in because g UP is NEGATIVE)

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But vy = 0, so;
u y2 = 2 gH

u y2
 H= but uy = usinθ
2g

u 2 sin 2 
 H=
2g

Examples
1. A baseball is thrown with an initial velocity of 100 m/s at an angle of 30° above the
horizontal as shown in the figure below. How far from the throwing point will the baseball
attain its original level?

u
uy

30°
ux x
x

2. As shown in the figure below, a projectile is fired horizontally with a speed of 30 m/s from
the top of a cliff 80 m high.

uy= 0 ux = 30 m/s

80 m

vx
θ x
x
uy

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 a. How long will it take to strike the level ground at the base of the cliff?
b. How far from the foot of the cliff will it strike?
c. With what velocity will it strike?

3. A ball is thrown in such a way that its initial vertical and horizontal components of velocity
are 40 m/s and 20 m/s, respectively. Estimate the total time of flight and the distance the ball
is from its starting point when it lands.

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Prescribed Books
1. Serway, Raymond and Vuille, Chris (2012). College Physics: 9th Edition, Charles
Hartford: United States of America.
2. Frederick, Bueche and Eugene, Hecht (1997). Schaum’s Outline, College Physics.
McGraw-Hill: United States of America.
Recommended Books
Duncan, Tom (2000). Advanced Physics: 5th Edition, Hodder Education: London.

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