Chapter 5.

Output Presentation • Data presentation element:

• Data presentation element is the final element in the measurement
system, its function is to present the measured value of the variable to a
human observer.
• The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
• This function is done by data presentation element.
• For control & analysis is purpose microprocessor or computers may be
used.
• The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage’
• The data presentation can be categories in two group such as
inductor and recorders.
 • Display Device
• The display system is the final link between the measuring process and the user.
• Display devices are used in instrumentation systems to provide instantaneous but
nonpermanent communication of information between a process or system and a human
observer.
• In measurement there are two types of Displays– analogue and digital.
• Analogue displays use a needle and calibrated scale to indicate values.

Eg; Pointer-scale -indicator

Observer must interpolate if the pointer lies between two scale marks, this may produce observation error due to :
i) Distance of the element from the observer
ii) Ambient lighting
iii) Eyesight, patience and skill of the observer
*this problem is avoided with digital display

Recorder/ Printer
• To provide a continuous record, on paper or on archive memory, of the time variation of measured variables.
• Eg; chart recorder, paperless recorder, laser printer laser printer
 Digital Display
• Digital displays show the measured value as digits and they
are more accurate than analogue.

• Digital display enables to show

• Digital Display Principles (Character displays) i) character (aplhanumeric= alphabetical + numerical
• Common character format used information)
I. Seven-segment ii) graphic (line diagrams, graphs, waveforms, bar charts,
II. Fourteen segment display etc.,)
III. 7x5 dot-matrix
• Each character format has its own limitation
• Basically, character is formed by an array of segment or dots, refers as (pixel= picture element)
• To display a character each pixel must be separately switched ‘on’ and ‘off’ independently of the
other pixels.

• Generally there are different types of displays but the most commonly used
are:
I) Light emitting diode, LED
ii) Cathode ray tube, CRT
iii) Liquid crystal displays(LCD)
iv) Electro-luminescence, EL
Light-Emitting Diode Displays

 The LED is a pn junction device which emits light when a current

passes through it in the forward direction.
 Charge carries recombination occurs at a PN junction as electrical
cross from N side and recombines with holes on the P side.
 When combination takes place, the change carries give up energy
in the of heat and light.
 If semiconducting material is translucent the light is emitted ,and
the junction is same of light. This the light-emitting diode .
• The Anode must be at a higher voltage potential than the Cathode.
• The amount of current flowing through the LED will determine the brightness of the LED.
• The amount of current is controlled by a series resistor.

 For maximum light emission, a metal film Anode is deposited around the edge of p type material.
 The cathode connection for the device is usually a gold film at the bottom of the N-type region. This helps in
reflecting the light to the surface.
 Semiconductor material used for manufacturing of LED are
 gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAasP) which emit red or yellow light
 gallium arsenide (Gaas)which gives green or red light emission.
 Digital Display
Cathode Ray Tube, CRT
• The CRT is a display screen which produces images in the form of the video signal.
• CRT is vacuum sealed glass envelope that has a source of electrons which emit
electrons, that are accelerated to pass through two pairs of plates before striking a
phosphor coated screen internally so as to provide a visual display of signal.

• It is a type of vacuum tube which displays images when the electron beam through
electron guns are strikes on the phosphorescent surface.
• In other Words, the CRT generates the beams, accelerates it at high velocity and
deflect it for creating the images on the phosphorous screen so that the beam
becomes visible.

• Based on electron beam (electrons are emitted at the cathode and accelerated
towards the anode) .
• The electron beam is switched ‘on’ and ‘off’ to produce required pattern for
creating characters on screen.
 Cathode Ray Tube, CRT

• FLUORESCENT SCREEN
• When the Fluorescent material is coated on the screen of CRT a Fluorescent screen is formed.
• The phosphor substance converts the electrical energy into light energy.
• When the high velocity electrons strike the phosphorescent screen, the light is emitted from it.
• The property of phosphor to emit light when its atoms are excited is called fluorescence.

Basically the cathode ray tube

consists of five main parts and
these main parts are written
below:
• Electron gun
• Deflection plate system.
• Fluorescent screen.
• Glass envelope.
• Base.
 Electron gun
 The electron gun is used for generating, controlling and focusing the beam of electrons enclosed in a
vacuum tube, electron beam directed towards the fluorescent-coated screen.
 The electron gun again internally consists of five components.
 They are: heater, cathode, control grid, accelerating anode, and focusing anode.
 The heater is heats the cathode to a high temperature.
 Cathode is a conductor that emits electrons from its surface when heated to a high temperature.
 The control grid is given negative potential with respect to cathode.
 The control grid controls the flow of electrons between the cathode and the accelerating anode. Hence, it
controls the brightness of the spot on the screen.

Deflection System
• When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection system, with which beam can be
positioned anywhere on the screen.
DEFLECTION PLATES
• There are Vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
Vertical Plates:
• This is placed horizontally and used to produce an electric field in a vertical direction.
Horizontal plates:
• This is placed in vertically and used to produced electric field in the horizontal direction.
• When the cathode is heated the electrons are emitted from it, these electrons pass
through the small hole in the control grid. By high positive potential the electrons
used to accelerated, this is done by applying the pre-accelerating and accelerating
anodes. by the help of focusing node, the electron beam is focussed.
• In this anodes is the cylindrical form with a small opening at the center of each
electrode. the electron beams used to pass through vertical and horizontal plates and
then goes on to the screen this done after living the focusing anode.
• The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass envelope so that the emitted electron can easily
move freely from one end of the tube to the other.
• When the electron fired from the gun strikes the screen and hits an atom in the phosphor, it transfers its energy to
an electron in the phosphor
• After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the pairs of electrostatic deflection plate.
• These plates deflected the beams when the voltage applied across it.
• The one pair of plate moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves the beam from one side to
another.
• The horizontal and vertical movement of the electron are independent of each other, and hence the electron beam
positioned anywhere on the screen, is what actually displays the images.
 Digital Display
Liquid Crystal Display
• A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel display device used for
electronically displaying information such as text ,images and moving picture that uses
the light modulating properties of liquid crystals.
• It make use of light modulating properties of liquid crystal and polarization of
light to form and present images to the viewer.
• LCD technology does not directly emit light in order to create visualizations, it rather
modifies the transmission of light to represent images.
• Using polarization of lights to display objects.
• LCDs are a type of light modulating display device, is the technique of Sending and
receiving the signal through the light.
• Its uses include computer monitors ,televisions , instrument panels, and devices ranging
from aircraft cockpit displays, to every-day consumer devices such as clocks ,
calculators, and telephones.
 Construction of Liquid Crystal Display
• An individual liquid crystal device is called a cell.
• A liquid crystal cell consists of a thin layer (about 10 u m)
of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass plates
with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces.
• The inner surface of the glasses has channels coated with
conductive polymer to apply voltage.
• Two polarizing filters (polarizer and the analyzer) are
usually perpendicular to each other.
• A polarizer is an optical filter that allows light waves of a
specific polarization to pass and blocks light waves of other
polarizations.

• Color filters are placed over each cell for color screens.
• The color patterns and shapes change for different
displays.

• It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number

of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light
source(backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.
• Normally the pixels looks dark.
 Liquid Crystal Display Digital Display
Liquid Crystal
 Liquid crystal refers to organic compounds which are in crystalline arrangement ,but can flow like liquid.
 Liquid Crystals exists in a state between crystalline (solid) and isotropic (liquid) state.
 Liquid crystal materials emit no light of their own, they need an external light source to work.
 The liquid is normally transparent, but if it is subjected to a strong electric field, ions move through it and
disrupt the well ordered crystal structure, causing the liquid to polarise and hence turn opaque.

Creating an LCD The combination of four facts makes

LCDs possible:
• Light can be polarized.
• Liquid crystals can transmit and change polarized light.
• The structure of liquid crystals can be changed by
electric current.
• There are transparent substances that can conduct
electricity.
 liquid crystals are actually small thin rod
like molecules that move in unison on
applying a voltage across them.
Liquid Crystal Display Without any voltage applied between transparent electrodes, liquid
crystal molecules are aligned in parallel with the glass surface.
No Voltage applied across the pixel
Molecules movement
 liquid crystals would have a twisted structural arrangement.
 The LC Molecules twist to align the rubbing of the glass plates.
 Forcing the liquid crystals into a twisted structural arrangement.
(Resultant force)

Light movement
 Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement.
 Light moves along with liquid crystals and twisted at right angle.
 Light bends 90 degrees as it follows the twist of the molecules.
 Light entering the first polarizer is twisted and can exit the second
polarizer
 Molecules and lights are parallel to the lower analyzer
 As a result, a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a
particular area of the LCD.
 Screen appear transparent.
 Pixel is ON
 Light passes through the plate when there is no electric field present
 Polarized light that has passed through the first polarizer is unaffected by the aligned
crystals and is blocked by the second (perpendicular) polarizer.
 Liquid Crystal Display
• When a voltage is applied
• Molecules movement
• An electric field is produced in the liquid, affecting the orientation of
the molecules.
• Molecule rearrange themselves vertically (along with the electric field)
• No twisting throughout movement
 The LC Molecules untwisted to align with electric field.
• Forcing the liquid crystals into a straight structural arrangement.
(Electric force)
Voltage applied across the pixel
 Light movement
 Light moves along with liquid crystals which moves straight
along the electric field.
 Light passes straight through along the arrangement of
molecules.
 Molecules and lights are perpendicular to the lower analyzer.
 Polarized light entering the first polarizer cannot exit the
second polarizer(lower analyzer ) “Pixel is OFF “ and low
light.
 Light cannot pass through the plate.
 Screen appear dark.
 • Consider a single pixel area in LCD ,in which there are two polarization filter oriented at 90 degree angle
to each other . These filter are used to polarize the un polarized light.
• The first filter (vertically polarized filter) polarizes the light with one polarization plane(vertical).
• when the vertically polarized light passes through the second filter(horizontally polarized filter) no
light output will produce.

• If the voltage is applied large enough

the molecules in the liquid crystal
layer changes it orientation (untwist)
so that light orientation changes and
the blocked by horizontally
polarized filter thus the pixel
appears dark.

The red, green and blue are three

standard colors filter are placed for
every thee pixels to produce different
color images by varying the intensity
of each other.

• The vertically polarized light pass through rotation of the molecules and twisted to 90 degrees.
• When the orientation of light matches with the outer polarization filter light will pass it and brightness the screen.
 When no electric field is applied
• (a), the helical structure of the LC molecules rotates the
vertically polarized light so that it can pass the second,
horizontal polarizer.

• The polarizers can rotate the polarity of the light by 90

degrees.
• A vertical polarizer will pass only vertical components of
the lights and horizontal components will be absorbed by it.
• Similarly a horizontal polarizer will pass only horizontal
components and vertical components are absorbed.

When an electric field is applied

• (b), the molecules tend to align with the electrical field,
distort and finally break the helical structure so that the
backlight is blocked by the horizontal polarizer and the
respective sub-pixel appears opaque.
• Light source which is emitting un-polarized light. Liquid Crystal Display
• When it passes through rear polarizer, the light will
become vertically polarized.
• Then this light enters to the liquid crystal layers, the
molecules also change the light's plane of vibration to
match their own angle.

• So when the vertically polarized light passes through

ON liquid crystal segment, it becomes horizontally
polarized.
• Next is horizontal polarizer, which will block
horizontally polarized light.
• So that segment will appear as dark for the observer.
• -not totally black but have some amount of light coming
through them

If the liquid crystal segment is OFF, it will not change

the polarization of light, so it will remain vertically
polarized.
So the front polarizer will pass that light.
So it will appear as bright (not dark) for the observer.
• When light from a backlight source is emitted and allowed to fall on the vertical polarizer.
• Then the un polarized light by the source gets vertically polarized.
• When initially no external potential is provided between the two electrodes, the molecules of
the liquid crystal remain twisted.
• This causes the vertically polarized light to get horizontally polarized due to the orientation of
the molecules.
• when a large voltage is applied between the two electrodes.
• Then this applied voltage causes the twisted mechanism of the molecules to get damaged causing
them to operate in a straight manner.
• Due to this, the vertically polarized light while passing the nematic crystal does not change its
polarization.
• This blocks the vertically polarized light to pass the horizontal polarizer there by generating a dark
pixel at the display.
• In this way, bright and dark images are generated.

• when the horizontally polarized light from the output of the nematic crystal is fed to the horizontal
polarizer then it passes the light thereby causing illumination of the pixel.
• Hence, generates a visible image on the screen.
 Working of Liquid Crystal Display
• The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light. It does not produce
light on its own. So external light source is used.
• When the external light passes from one polarizer to the next polarizer,
external supply is given to the liquid crystal ,the polarized light aligns itself
so that the image is produced in the screen.
• The polarization property of light is used in LCD
screen to switch its colored pixels on or off.
Recorder
• Recording type of instrument provides graphical representation of the quantity
under measurement on screen.
• A record is used to analyses how one variable varies with respect to another and how
the signal series with time.
• The objective of a recording system is to record and preserve information
pertaining to measurement at a particular time and also to get an idea of the
performance of the unit and to provide the results of the steps taken by the operator.
 Recorder
 A recorder is a measuring instrument which records time varying quantity, even
after the quantity or variable to be measured has stopped.
 Recorder is a device which records electrical and non electrical quantities as a
function of time.
 Current and voltages can be recorded directly, while the non electrical quantities are
recorded indirectly and first converted to their equivalent voltages or currents, using
various transducers.
 Electronic recorders may be classified as:
1. Analog recorders
2. Digital recorders
• What is digital recorder?
• A device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive or other memory
medium within a device, and can also be transfered to a computer via USB cable.

 Digital recorders dealing with digital output can be classified as

1. Incremental digital recorders
2. Synchronous digital recorders
 Recorder
• What is Analog Recorder?
• An analog recording is where you would record the analog signal to recordable medium.
• The medium may be magnetic tapes or sketches on records.

 Analog recorders dealing with analog systems can be classified as

1. Graphic recorders
 strip chart
 Galvanometer type
 Null type
 Potentiometric recorders • The modern examples of the analog
 Bridge recorders
audio recording are:
 LVDT recorders
1) Gramophone record (aka phonograph
 circular chart and
record, vinyl, etc.)
 x-y recorder
2) Magnetic tape recorder
2. Oscillographic recorders
3. Magnetic Tape recorders 3) Reel-to-Reel recorders
4) Compact cassette
 Graphic Recorders
• Basic elements of a recorder include a chart for displaying and storing the recorded
information, a stylus moving in a proper relationship to the paper and suitable means of
interconnection to couple the stylus to the source of information.
• A graphic recorder is basically a measuring device which is able to produce in real time a
hard copy of a set of time functions with the purpose of immediate and/or later visual
inspection.
• The curves/lines are mostly drawn on a (long) strip of paper (from a roll), often called
strip chart recorder.
• This records one or more dependent variable with respect to time.
• When the curves are drawn on a circular paper, it is called a circular chart recorder, and
• when two independent variables are to be recorded on a piece of paper with respect to each
other, it is called an X-Y recorder.
• Graphic recorder generally an devices which display and store a pen and ink record
of the history some physical event.
 •Strip Chart Recorder
The following components are required: –
•PEN (Stylus): –Used for marking the variations of variable
quantity on the strip chart.
•Event marker: – This marker is used to mark the time for
which the variations of quantity are required to record.
•Signal conditioning system: –This system consists of discrete
circuits, filters, amplifiers, ADC, DAC etc.
•Chart paper: – This chart paper is in the form of strip. This
paper is rolled and moves under the pen as the time goes on.
•Chart paper drive mechanism: – To move the chart paper
under the pen a driving mechanism is required. In this
mechanism, the speed of the moving chart can be controlled.

• Strip chart recorders are widely used to record variation of a variable quantity or
quantities with respect to time axis.
• It s device use to record the information as electrical suignal.
• In some applications in industry, it is required to know the variations in a particular parameter
which changes with respect to time and is needed to be recorded for record purpose.
• Strip chart recorder, as the name implies, consists the strip of chart on which the variations of the
variable are plotted.
• Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle are those in which data is recorded on a
continuous roll of chart paper moving at a constant speed.
• The recorder records the variation of one of more variables with respect to
time.
• The basic element of a Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle consists of a pen
(stylus) used for making marks on a movable paper, a pen (stylus) driving
system, a vertically moving long roll of chart paper and chart paper drive
mechanism and a chart speed selector switch.
 X-Y Recorder
Graphic Recorder
• X-Y recorder is an instrument which gives a
graphic record of the relationship between two
variables.
• X-Y recorder is one which records the
variation of one physical quantity against
another physical quantity.
• Two input signal are applied to the two
channels of X input & Y input.
• It is used to measure voltage, current,
frequency, power factors etc….
• X-Y recorder consists of a pair of servo systems,
driving a recording pen in two axis on stationary
paper chart.
• Input impedance of X-Y recorder typically
varies between 11 K𝛺 to 1M 𝛺 depending on
the voltage range selected.
• Records one or more parameters with respect to some other.
• In X-Y recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another emf.
• XY recorders accept two inputs
and create a chart or graph of The writing pen will be deflected in both X direction and Y
one input versus the other. direction on a stationary chart paper.
 X-Y Recorders

• Attenuators are used to bring the input signals to the

levels acceptable by the recorder.

• A signal enters each of the two channels.

• The signals are attenuated to the inherent full scale
range of the recorder ( often 0-5mv), the signal then
passes to a balance circuit where it is compared
with standard reference voltage offered by the
internal reference source.
• The error signal ,the difference between the input
signal voltage and the reference voltage is fed to a
chopper which converts d.c signal to an a.c signal.
• The signal is then amplified in order to actuate a
servomotor which is used to balance the system and
hold it in balance as the value of the quantity being
recorder changes.
 Working:

• Each of the input signals is attenuated in the range of 0-5 mV, so that it can work in the
dynamic range of the recorder.
• The balancing circuit then compares the attenuated signal to a fixed internal
reference voltage.
• The output of the balancing circuit is a dc error signal produced by the difference
between the attenuated signal and the reference voltage.
• This dc error signal is then converted into an ac signal with the help of a chopper
circuit. This ac signal is not sufficient to drive the pen/arm drive motor, hence, it is
amplified by an ac amplifier.
• This amplified signal (error signal) is then applied to actuate the servo motor so that the
pen/arm mechanism moves in an appropriate direction in order to reduce the error,
thereby bringing the system to balance.
• Hence as the input signal being recorded varies, the pen/arm tries to hold the
system in balance, producing a record on the paper.
 Magnetic Tape Recorder
• Magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium.
• Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a magnetisable material to store data and is a form
of non-volatile memory.
• A magnetic tape recorder is used to record data which can be retrieved and reproduced in
electrical form again.
• Magnetic record can be erased and the medium can be used to record data or signal afresh.
• Recording can be made on either tape or diskette
• This recorder can record signals of high frequency.

• Time bases of the recorded data can be changed i.e data recorded at fast speeds can be played
back at low speeds
• Possibility of playing back or reproducing of the recorded signal as many times as required
without loss .

• Applications of Magnetic Tape Recorders:

• Data recording and analysis on missiles, aircraft and satellites.
• Communications and spying.
• Recording of stress, vibration and analysis of noise.
 Magnetic Tape Recorder
• Basic Components of Magnetic Tape
 Recording Head
Recorder:
 Magnetic Tape
• A magnetic tape recorder consists of the  Reproducing Head
following basic components.  Tape Movement Mechanism
Construction  Conditioning Device
 Description of Magnetic Tape Recorders:
Recording Head
• A recording head is the physical interface between a recording
apparatus and a moving recording medium.
• The construction of the magnetic recording head is very much
similar to the construction of a transformer having a toroidal core
with coil .
• The tape head consist of a ring of soft magnetic material called core is
with a small gap in it
• There is a uniform fine air gap of 5 µ m t o 15 µ m between the head
and the magnetic tape.
• This gap is filled with a diamagnetic material such as gold which
forces the magnetic flux out of the gap into the magnetic tape
medium more than air
• When the current used for recording is passed through coil wound
around magnetic core, it produces magnetic flux.
• The flux thus magnetises the tape at that point.

• The coil current creates a flux, which passes through the

air gap to the magnetic tape and magnetizes the iron
oxide particles as they pass the air gap.
 Magnetic Tape Recorder
• Magnetic tape
• The magnetic tape is made of a thin sheet of tough plastic
material; one side of it is coated with a magnetic material (iron
oxide, Fe2O3). The plastic base is usually polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) or polyethylene terephthalate.

• The tape travels over the gap in the core.

• When the tape is passing the head, the flux produced due
to recording current gets linked with iron oxide particles
on the magnetic tape and these particles get
magnetized.
• This magnetization particle remain as it is, even though
the magnetic tape leaves the gap.

• The actual recording takes place at the trailing edge of the air gap.
• Any signal is recorded in the form of the patterns.
• These magnetic patterns are dispersed any where along the length of magnetic tape in
accordance with the variation in recording current with respect to time.
• Extent of magnetism stored on the tape varies as the strength of magnetic field varies.
 Reproducing Head

• The magnetic tape is passes over a reproducing head, there by resulting in an output
voltage proportional to the magnetic flux in the tape, across the coil of the
reproducing head.
• Thus the magnetic pattern recorded on the tape is detected and converted back into
original electrical signal.
• The use of the reproducing head is to get the recorded data played back.
• In appearance, both recording and reproducing heads are very much similar but working
opposite.
• During playback the tape passes over the same head which is called
record/playback head
• This time the magnetism stored on the tape induces a voltage in the head coil
• This voltage is amplified and used to drive a loudspeaker
• The electromagnetic arrangement of a tape head is generally similar for all
types, though the physical design varies considerably depending on the
application
Tape Transport Mechanism

 The tape transport mechanism moves the magnetic tape along the recording head or reproducing head
with a constant speed
The tape transport mechanism must perform following tasks.
 It must handle the tape without straining and wearing it.
 It must use arrangement guide the tape across magnetic heads with great precision.
 It must maintain proper tension of magnetic tape.
 It must maintain uniform and obtain sufficient gap between the tape and heads.

 The magnetic tape is wound on two reel.

 Both the reels rotate in same direction.
 The transportation of the tape is done by using
supply reel and take-up reel.
 The fast winding of the tape or the reversing of the
tape is done by using special arrangements.
 The rollers are used to drive and guide the tape.

• CONDITIONING DEVICE
• These devices consist of filters and amplifiers required
for modifying the signal to format that can be properly
recorded on a tape.
Working Principle of Tape Recorders

• When a magnetic tape is passed through a recording head, any signal to be

recorded appears as some magnetic pattern on the tape.
• This magnetic pattern is in accordance with the variations of original recording
current.
• The recorded signal can be reproduced back by passing the same tape through a
reproducing head where the voltage is induced corresponding to the magnetic
pattern on the tape.
• When the tape is passed through the reproducing head, the head detects the
changes in the magnetic pattern i .e. magnetization.
• The change in magnetization of particles produces change in the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit of the reproducing head, inducing a voltage in its winding.
• The induced voltage depends on the direction of magnetisation and its magnitude
on the tape.