IntrodIntroduction of ALU and Data Path

Last Updated : 30 Sep, 2024

Representing and storing numbers were the basic operations of the

computers of earlier times. The real go came when computation,
manipulating numbers like adding and multiplying came into the picture.
These operations are handled by the computer’s arithmetic logic unit
(ALU). The ALU is the mathematical brain of a computer. The first ALU
(Arithmetic Logic Unit) was indeed the INTEL 74181, which was
implemented as part of the 7400 series TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic)
integrated circuits. It was released by Intel in 1970.

What is ALU?

ALU is a digital circuit that provides arithmetic and logic operations. It is

the fundamental building block of the central processing unit of a
computer. A modern central processing unit(CPU) has a very powerful
ALU and it is complex in design. In addition to ALU modern CPU
contains a control unit and a set of registers. Most of the operations are
performed by one or more ALUs, which load data from the input register.
Registers are a small amount of storage available to the CPU. These
registers can be accessed very fast. The control unit tells ALU what
operation to perform on the available data. After
calculation/manipulation, the ALU stores the output in an output
register.

The CPU can be divided into two sections: the data section and the
control section. The data section is also known as the data path.

BUS

In early computers BUS were parallel electrical wires with multiple

hardware connections. Therefore a bus is a communication system that
transfers data between components inside a computer, or between
computers. It includes hardware components like wires, optical fibers,
etc and software, including communication protocols. The Registers,
ALU, and the interconnecting BUS are collectively referred to as data
paths.

Types of the bus

There are mainly three type of bus:-

1. Address bus: Transfers memory addresses from the processor

to components like storage and input/output devices. It’s one-
way communication.
2. Data bus: carries the data between the processor and other
components. The data bus is bidirectional.
3. Control bus: carries control signals from the processor to other
components. The control bus also carries the clock’s pulses.
The control bus is unidirectional.

The bus can be dedicated, i.e., it can be used for a single purpose or it
can be multiplexed, i.e., it can be used for multiple purposes. when we
would have different kinds of buses, different types of bus organizations
will take place.

Registers

In Computer Architecture, the Registers are very fast computer memory

which is used to execute programs and operations efficiently. but In that
scenario, registers serve as gates, sending signals to various
components to carry out little tasks. Register signals are directed by the
control unit, which also operates the registers.

The following list of five registers for in-out signal data storage:

1. Program Counter
A program counter (PC) is a CPU register in the computer
processor which has the address of the next instruction to be
 executed from memory . As each instruction gets fetched, the
program counter increases its stored value by 1. It is a digital
counter needed for faster execution of tasks as well as for
tracking the current execution point.
2. Instruction Register
In computing, an instruction register (IR) is the part of a CPU’s
control unit that holds the instruction currently being executed
or decoded. The instruction register specifically holds the
instruction and provides it to the instruction decoder circuit.
3. Memory Address Register
The Memory Address Register (MAR) is the CPU register that
either stores the memory address from which data will be
fetched from the CPU, or the address to which data will be sent
and stored. It is a temporary storage component in the
CPU(central processing unit) that temporarily stores the
address (location) of the data sent by the memory unit until the
instruction for the particular data is executed.
4. Memory Data Register
The memory data register (MDR) is the register in a computer’s
processor, or central processing unit, CPU, that stores the data
being transferred to and from the immediate access storage.
Memory data register (MDR) is also known as memory buffer
register (MBR).
5. General Purpose Register
General-purpose registers are used to store temporary data
 within the microprocessor . It is a multipurpose register. They
can be used either by a programmer or by a user.

What is Data Path?

Suppose that the CPU needs to carry out any data processing action,
such as copying data from memory to a register and vice versa, moving
register content from one register to another, or adding two numbers in
the ALU. Therefore, whenever a data processing action takes place in
the CPU, the data involved for that operation follows a particular path, or
data path.

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Data paths are made up of various functional components, such as

multipliers or arithmetic logic units. Data path is required to do data
processing operations.

One Bus Organization

In one bus organization, a single bus is used for multiple purposes. A
set of general-purpose registers, program counters, instruction
registers, memory address registers (MAR), memory data registers
(MDR) are connected with the single bus. Memory read/write can be
done with MAR and MDR. The program counterpoints to the memory
location from where the next instruction is to be fetched. Instruction
register is that very register will hold the copy of the current instruction.
In the case of one bus organization, at a time only one operand can be
read from the bus.
As a result, if the requirement is to read two operands for the operation
then the read operation needs to be carried twice. So that’s why it is
making the process a little longer. One of the advantages of one bus
organization is that it is one of the simplest and also this is very cheap
to implement. At the same time a disadvantage lies that it has only one
bus and this “one bus” is accessed by all general-purpose registers,
program counter, instruction register, MAR, MDR making each and every
operation sequential. No one recommends this architecture nowadays.
Two Bus Organization

To overcome the disadvantage of one bus organization another

architecture was developed known as two bus organization. In two bus
organizations, there are two buses. The general-purpose register can
read/write from both the buses. In this case, two operands can be
fetched at the same time because of the two buses. One bus fetch
operand for ALU and another bus fetch for register. The situation arises
when both buses are busy fetching operands, the output can be stored
in a temporary register and when the buses are free, the particular
output can be dumped on the buses.

There are two versions of two bus organizations, i.e., in-bus and out-
bus. From in-bus, the general-purpose register can read data and to the
out bus, the general-purpose registers can write data. Here buses get
dedicated.
Three Bus Organization

In three bus organizations we have three buses, OUT bus1, OUT bus2,
and an IN bus. From the out buses, we can get the operand which can
come from the general-purpose register and evaluated in ALU and the
output is dropped on In Bus so it can be sent to respective registers.
This implementation is a bit complex but faster in nature because in
parallel two operands can flow into ALU and out of ALU. It was
developed to overcome the busy waiting problem of two bus
organizations. In this structure after execution, the output can be
dropped on the bus without waiting because of the presence of an extra
bus. The structure is given below in the figure.
The main advantages of multiple bus organizations over the single bus
are as given below.

1. Increase in size of the registers.

2. Reduction in the number of cycles for execution.
3. Increases the speed of execution or we can say faster
execution.

ALU and Data Path – FAQs

1. How does the data path facilitate data movement within the CPU?

The registers, multiplexers, decoders, and buses which create data path
and data move through the CPU. buses transfer data to registers,
memory and ALU, multiplexers select inputs and decoders route data to
related components, and registers store data temporary.

2. What connection exists between the data route and the ALU?

In the CPU, ALU and Datapath work together. for data movement or data
manipulation the data path provides infrastructure and also allow to
transfer data between registers, memory, and the ALU. ALU performs
data calculation and logical operation.

3. How do the ALU and data path contribute to CPU performance?

The data path and ALU are key components of CPU performance. Fast
computations and logical processes made possible by the ALU allow for
effective instruction execution. The data channel makes sure that data
flows smoothly, reducing delays and enabling quicker data processing
inside the CPU.
4. Can the ALU and data path be modified or expanded on a CPU?

Yes, based on the particular needs of a CPU, the ALU and data path can
be modified or enlarged. The design and capabilities of the ALU and
data path may differ between different architectures, allowing for
optimization and specialization dependent on the intended use of the
CPU.

Video | Data-Path & Basics of instruction execution

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uction of ALU and Data Path

Last Updated : 30 Sep, 2024

Representing and storing numbers were the basic operations of the

computers of earlier times. The real go came when computation, manipulating
numbers like adding and multiplying came into the picture. These operations
are handled by the computer’s arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU is the
mathematical brain of a computer. The first ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) was
indeed the INTEL 74181, which was implemented as part of the 7400 series
TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) integrated circuits. It was released by Intel in
1970.

What is ALU?

ALU is a digital circuit that provides arithmetic and logic operations. It is the
fundamental building block of the central processing unit of a computer. A
modern central processing unit(CPU) has a very powerful ALU and it is
complex in design. In addition to ALU modern CPU contains a control unit and
a set of registers. Most of the operations are performed by one or more ALUs,
which load data from the input register. Registers are a small amount of
storage available to the CPU. These registers can be accessed very fast. The
control unit tells ALU what operation to perform on the available data. After
calculation/manipulation, the ALU stores the output in an output register.

The CPU can be divided into two sections: the data section and the control
section. The data section is also known as the data path.

BUS

In early computers BUS were parallel electrical wires with multiple hardware
connections. Therefore a bus is a communication system that transfers data
between components inside a computer, or between computers. It includes
hardware components like wires, optical fibers, etc and software, including
communication protocols. The Registers, ALU, and the interconnecting BUS
are collectively referred to as data paths.
Types of the bus

There are mainly three type of bus:-

1. Address bus: Transfers memory addresses from the processor to

components like storage and input/output devices. It’s one-way
communication.
2. Data bus: carries the data between the processor and other
components. The data bus is bidirectional.
3. Control bus: carries control signals from the processor to other
components. The control bus also carries the clock’s pulses. The
control bus is unidirectional.

The bus can be dedicated, i.e., it can be used for a single purpose or it can be
multiplexed, i.e., it can be used for multiple purposes. when we would have
different kinds of buses, different types of bus organizations will take place.

Registers

In Computer Architecture, the Registers are very fast computer memory which
is used to execute programs and operations efficiently. but In that scenario,
registers serve as gates, sending signals to various components to carry out
little tasks. Register signals are directed by the control unit, which also
operates the registers.

The following list of five registers for in-out signal data storage:

1. Program Counter
A program counter (PC) is a CPU register in the computer processor
which has the address of the next instruction to be executed from
 memory . As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter
increases its stored value by 1. It is a digital counter needed for
faster execution of tasks as well as for tracking the current execution
point.
2. Instruction Register
In computing, an instruction register (IR) is the part of a CPU’s
control unit that holds the instruction currently being executed or
decoded. The instruction register specifically holds the instruction
and provides it to the instruction decoder circuit.
3. Memory Address Register
The Memory Address Register (MAR) is the CPU register that either
stores the memory address from which data will be fetched from the
CPU, or the address to which data will be sent and stored. It is a
temporary storage component in the CPU(central processing unit)
that temporarily stores the address (location) of the data sent by the
memory unit until the instruction for the particular data is executed.
4. Memory Data Register
The memory data register (MDR) is the register in a computer’s
processor, or central processing unit, CPU, that stores the data being
transferred to and from the immediate access storage. Memory data
register (MDR) is also known as memory buffer register (MBR).
5. General Purpose Register
General-purpose registers are used to store temporary data within
the microprocessor . It is a multipurpose register. They can be used
either by a programmer or by a user.
What is Data Path?

Suppose that the CPU needs to carry out any data processing action, such as
copying data from memory to a register and vice versa, moving register
content from one register to another, or adding two numbers in the ALU.
Therefore, whenever a data processing action takes place in the CPU, the
data involved for that operation follows a particular path, or data path.

ADVERTISING

Pause

Unmute

Data paths are made up of various functional components, such as multipliers

or arithmetic logic units. Data path is required to do data processing
operations.

One Bus Organization

In one bus organization, a single bus is used for multiple purposes. A set of
general-purpose registers, program counters, instruction registers, memory
address registers (MAR), memory data registers (MDR) are connected with
the single bus. Memory read/write can be done with MAR and MDR. The
program counterpoints to the memory location from where the next instruction
is to be fetched. Instruction register is that very register will hold the copy of
the current instruction. In the case of one bus organization, at a time only one
operand can be read from the bus.
As a result, if the requirement is to read two operands for the operation then
the read operation needs to be carried twice. So that’s why it is making the
process a little longer. One of the advantages of one bus organization is that it
is one of the simplest and also this is very cheap to implement. At the same
time a disadvantage lies that it has only one bus and this “one bus” is
accessed by all general-purpose registers, program counter, instruction
register, MAR, MDR making each and every operation sequential. No one
recommends this architecture nowadays.

Two Bus Organization

To overcome the disadvantage of one bus organization another architecture

was developed known as two bus organization. In two bus organizations,
there are two buses. The general-purpose register can read/write from both
the buses. In this case, two operands can be fetched at the same time
because of the two buses. One bus fetch operand for ALU and another bus
fetch for register. The situation arises when both buses are busy fetching
operands, the output can be stored in a temporary register and when the
buses are free, the particular output can be dumped on the buses.
There are two versions of two bus organizations, i.e., in-bus and out-bus.
From in-bus, the general-purpose register can read data and to the out bus,
the general-purpose registers can write data. Here buses get dedicated.

Three Bus Organization

In three bus organizations we have three buses, OUT bus1, OUT bus2, and
an IN bus. From the out buses, we can get the operand which can come from
the general-purpose register and evaluated in ALU and the output is dropped
on In Bus so it can be sent to respective registers. This implementation is a bit
complex but faster in nature because in parallel two operands can flow into
ALU and out of ALU. It was developed to overcome the busy waiting problem
of two bus organizations. In this structure after execution, the output can be
dropped on the bus without waiting because of the presence of an extra bus.
The structure is given below in the figure.

The main advantages of multiple bus organizations over the single bus are as
given below.

1. Increase in size of the registers.

2. Reduction in the number of cycles for execution.
3. Increases the speed of execution or we can say faster execution.

ALU and Data Path – FAQs

1. How does the data path facilitate data movement within the CPU?

The registers, multiplexers, decoders, and buses which create data path and
data move through the CPU. buses transfer data to registers, memory and
ALU, multiplexers select inputs and decoders route data to related
components, and registers store data temporary.

2. What connection exists between the data route and the ALU?

In the CPU, ALU and Datapath work together. for data movement or data
manipulation the data path provides infrastructure and also allow to transfer
data between registers, memory, and the ALU. ALU performs data calculation
and logical operation.

3. How do the ALU and data path contribute to CPU performance?

The data path and ALU are key components of CPU performance. Fast
computations and logical processes made possible by the ALU allow for
effective instruction execution. The data channel makes sure that data flows
smoothly, reducing delays and enabling quicker data processing inside the
CPU.

4. Can the ALU and data path be modified or expanded on a CPU?

Yes, based on the particular needs of a CPU, the ALU and data path can be
modified or enlarged. The design and capabilities of the ALU and data path
may differ between different architectures, allowing for optimization and
specialization dependent on the intended use of the CPU.

Video | Data-Path & Basics of instruction execution

 Visit Course

Bhumika_Rani

Follow

38

Previous Article

Vector Instruction Types

Next Article

Computer Arithmetic | Set - 1

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reduces average instruction time. Each step takes a single clock cycle Each
functional unit can be used more than once in an instruction, as long as it is
used in different clock cycles. It reduces the amount of hardware needed. (I)
Fetch Instruction : An instruction sto

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Deadlock occurs when each transaction T in a schedule of two or more

transactions waiting for some item locked by some other transaction T' in the
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the lock on the item. Deadlocks are a common problem and we have
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central processing units (CPUs) share full access to a common RAM. The
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In First Out (LIFO) access method which is the most popular access method
in most of the CPU. A register is used to store the address of the topmost
element of the stack which is known as Stack point

3 min read

Introduction to Crypto-terminologies

Cryptography is an important aspect when we deal with network security.

'Crypto' means secret or hidden. Cryptography is the science of secret writing
with the intention of keeping the data secret. Cryptanalysis, on the other hand,
is the science or sometimes the art of breaking cryptosystems. Both terms are
a subset of what is called Cryptology. C

4 min read

Introduction of Single Accumulator based CPU organization

The computers, present in the early days of computer history, had

accumulator-based CPUs. In this type of CPU organization, the accumulator
register is used implicitly for processing all instructions of a program and
storing the results into the accumulator. The instruction format that is used by
this CPU Organisation is the One address field. Due

2 min read

Introduction of General Register based CPU Organization

When we are using multiple general-purpose registers, instead of a single

accumulator register, in the CPU Organization then this type of organization is
known as General register-based CPU Organization. In this type of
organization, the computer uses two or three address fields in their instruction
format. Each address field may specify a general

3 min read
Introduction of Ports in Computers

A port is basically a physical docking point which is basically used to connect

the external devices to the computer, or we can say that A port act as an
interface between the computer and the external devices, e.g., we can
connect hard drives, printers to the computer with the help of ports. Features
of Computer ports: We can connect external devi

3 min read

Introduction of Microcomputer System

Introduction of Microcomputer System Microcomputer systems are small and

inexpensive computers that are widely used in various applications. The 8085
microprocessor is an example of a Microcomputer System. A microprocessor
system contains two types of memory that are EPROM and R/WM, Input and
Output devices, and the buses that are used to link all

4 min read

Introduction of Compact Disk (CD) optical memory

Optical memory is a type of electronic storage medium that stores and

retrieves data using a laser beam. If we categorize memory systems, optical
memory falls under external memory in a computer system. There are
numerous forms of optical memory. What is Optical Memory?Optical memory
is a form of electronic storage that uses a laser beam to store a

5 min read

Introduction To Security Defense Models

These models are mainly used for Defense Purpose i.e., securing the data or
the asset. There are 2 main types of Security Defense Models: Lollipop
Model, and Onion Model. These are explained as following below. 1. Lollipop
Model : Lollipop Model is Defense Model associated with an analogy of a
Lollipop. A lollipop is having a chocolate in the middl
2 min read

Introduction of Blue Brain (world's first Artificial Brain)

Artificial Brain is a software or hardware which is similar to functioning of

biological human brain in terms of Memory, Feelings, Emotions, and decision
making. This can be done using reverse engineering techniques on human
brain so functioning of brain can be understood. The structure of human brain
is still complex to understand by scientists. M

3 min read

Introduction of Foldable Screens

Foldable screens, once thought to be impossible, but in today’s era nothing

seems to be impossible and these foldable screens are a reality in form of
foldable phones. This phone becomes a tablet when opened and a pocket-
sized smart-phone when folded. But, question is how they achieved such a
technological feat. Well, answer is flexible screens; it

3 min read