energies

Article
Cycle-to-Cycle Variation of the Combustion Process in a Diesel
Engine Fueled with Rapeseed Oil—Diethyl Ether Blends
Krzysztof Górski 1, * , Ruslans Smigins 2 , Jonas Matijošius 3 and Dimitrios Tziourtzioumis 4

1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom,
ul. Chrobrego 45, 26-600 Radom, Poland
2 Faculty of Engineering, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, J. Cakstes Blvd 5,
LV3001 Jelgava, Latvia
3 Department of Automobile Engineering, Faculty of Transport Engineering, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, J. Basanavičiaus Str. 28, LT-03224 Vilnius, Lithuania
4 Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, International Hellenic University,
14th km Thessaloniki, 570 01 Nea Moudania, Greece
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-48-361-76-58

Abstract: The application of rapeseed oil (RO) blends with diesel fuel and/or alcohols and/or ethers
is known to significantly affect the combustion process. Aiming to further investigate the effects
of rapeseed oil in a blend with diethyl ether (DEE) on this process, the coefficient of variation of
the mean indicated pressure (COVMIP ) of a 2.5l direct injection diesel engine was calculated. The
analysis of the experimental results revealed the repeatability of the combustion process variability of
diesel fuel (DF), rapeseed oil (RO), and DEE/RO blends containing up to 20% DEE. In these cases,
the COVMIP does not exceed 4%. Additionally, it became obvious that for a higher content of DEE
in blend with RO, the cyclic repeatability of the mean indicated pressure (MIP) was reduced. Thus,
the values of COVMIP for fuels containing 30 and 40% of DEE by vol. in blend with RO were even
three times higher than the values obtained for the reference fuel i.e., DF. The results indicate that
the increased content of DEE in the mixture with RO is disadvantageous as it leads to excessive
unevenness of the engine operation compared to its fueling with DF. The observed deterioration of
Citation: Górski, K.; Smigins, R.;
the combustion process is caused by the vapor locks, which are formed due to the evaporation of
Matijošius, J.; Tziourtzioumis, D.
volatile DEE in the fuel line, leading to the interrupted operation of the fuel injector.
Cycle-to-Cycle Variation of the
Combustion Process in a Diesel
Keywords: rapeseed oil; diesel fuel; diethyl ether; combustion process; renewable fuels
Engine Fueled with Rapeseed
Oil—Diethyl Ether Blends. Energies
2023, 16, 720. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en16020720
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Diego Luna
Currently, the world is going through an energy crisis, as a result of which fuel
and Paul Hellier
prices at filling stations are breaking new records. The unpredictable rise in fossil fuel
Received: 10 November 2022 prices is forcing consumers to change their daily habits by reducing their daily use of
Revised: 6 December 2022 cars, commuting by public transport, or choosing to walk. The choice of electric cars also
Accepted: 5 January 2023 serves as an option for solving mobility problems, but the crisis in the field of electricity
Published: 7 January 2023 production has not gone unnoticed either, and a constant increase in prices can be observed
here as well, sometimes reaching moments when a trip with a diesel car is cheaper than
with an electric car. In the hope that the crisis will not be long-term, solutions are being
sought that would be able to survive this relatively difficult transition period with as little
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
investment as possible, so that afterward we can fully return to the course of “green” energy.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Nor should we forget about the strict ecological regulations fulfillment of which can be
This article is an open access article
realized by reducing the consumption of fossil fuels in transport. One of the solutions
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
could be biofuels, the first and the faster application of which was started in very similar
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
circumstances—in the 70s of the last century—during another energy crisis. These are fuels,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the extraction of which does not require excessive material investments, and have also
4.0/). been well-known to consumers since the beginning of the 2000s. Compatibility with the

Energies 2023, 16, 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020720 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 720 2 of 17

existing refueling infrastructure and internal combustion engines, as well as the positive
ecological impact, are the most important advantages of biofuels, which have not been
fully evaluated.
“Conventional” or first-generation biofuels still account for 90% of all liquid biofuels
and over 80 countries have liquid biofuel blending mandates in place [1]. One such example
is biodiesel, which is already constantly used in the form of a 7% admixture in transport.
The use of larger mixtures or even neat fuel is mainly limited by the effect of low ambient
temperature which results in a reduction in viscosity, as also the possibility of damaging
the engine and emitting unbearable nitrous oxides (NOx) emissions [2]. However, the
transformation of vegetable oil into biodiesel is not always the best option for improving the
properties of the oil for use in low ambient temperatures. Research shows that properties
such as viscosity can be improved using different solutions: dilution (blending with
hydrocarbon fuel), co-solvent blending (micro-emulsification), and cracking (pyrolysis) [3].
The simplest method accompanied by the least negative consequences is dilution usually
realized with hydrocarbon fuels and alcohols, like ethanol or methanol. It cannot be denied
that alcohol plays a key role in the decarbonization of the energy conversion chains [4],
but the use of pure alcohol fuels have also some disadvantages. For example, methanol
application in CI engines is limited due to a very low cetane number; therefore, the best
option is the conversion of the base diesel engine to dual fuel operation with methanol in
such a way reduces two main pollutants: NOx and PM [5], but is associated with additional
costs. Viscosity reduction by microemulsions has long-term negative consequences such
as carbon deposit formation and injector needle sticking [6], while pyrolysis has high
infrastructure cost and the necessity for separate distillation equipment [7]. The formation
of ethers made it possible to expand the range of additives that could be used to improve
the physicochemical properties of both fossil and alternative fuels. In this regard, two
promising fuels emerged—dimethyl ether (DME) and diethyl ether (DEE). DME, which is
considered to be a promising alternative due to its soot-free combustion [8] is produced
through the chemical conversion of various renewable substances or fossil fuels such
as natural gas, coal, and biomass. Overall, it can be considered a good liquid organic
hydrogen carrier with wide application in engines [9]. The absence of the C-C bond, higher
oxygen content, and cetane number, sufficiently good auto-ignitability, better atomization
characteristics, and non-toxic and less corrosive mark the main advantages of this fuel,
although there are also disadvantages. Due to the low combustion enthalpy, a larger
amount of fuel and a longer injection period is necessary, and due to the low viscosity
value, it is necessary to use a lubricity enhancer in order not to damage the fuel injection
system [8].
Compared to methanol-based ethers, ethanol ones have some more advantages. While
DME is similar to DEE, the last one has a liquid aggregate state exactly in ambient condi-
tions, which significantly facilitates its logistical possibilities. Additionally, to this, DEE
is produced by the dehydration process from ethanol, which allows it to be called a re-
newable fuel. There are many different benefits of DEE, but the most important ones
are: improved miscibility, higher cetane number, and oxygen content, as also prolonged
flammability. Various studies [10–14] on DEE application in diesel engines confirm that it
can be also used in different mixtures with diesel fuel, biodiesel, ethanol, biodiesel/diesel,
ethanol/biodiesel/blends, etc. Similar studies [15] in this regard have been carried out with
DEE, the addition of which in proportion up to 30% contributed to a significant decrease in
viscosity of both rapeseed and linseed oil, as an also positive tendency in the case of NOx
and HC emission reduction in comparison to rapeseed oil [16]. Overall, both of these fuels
are promising alternatives to fossil fuels, but DEE accounts for more possible advantages
than it was chosen for this research.
The combination of DEE or DME with other types of fuel also shows a very promising
perspective. For example, ammonia (NH3), which is recognized as a carbon-free hydrogen-
carrier fuel in the fuel blend with DEE could lower the overall carbon content of the fuel
and possibly the fuel cost [17]. The positive effect of alcohol and ammonia fuels has also
Energies 2023, 16, 720 3 of 17

been seen by Ariemma [18], who confirmed that such mixtures ensure a stable oxidation
process in a wide range of operational parameters, as also a significant reduction of NOx
emissions. In addition to that, Cai and Zhao [19] also confirm that optimizing the NH3/air
combustion by blending with DME is a potentially applicable technique.
Much previously mentioned research has been done concerning DEE and different
fuel blends with a focus on averaged results in combustion not taking into account dif-
ferences in cycle-to-cycle operation. Although cycle-to-cycle variations (CCVs) were first
studied directly in spark-ignition engines, interest in the given field of research has also
increased for diesel engines, especially since the two-stage injection strategies on the mix-
ture formation [20]. Studies showed that conventional compression ignition engines are
not so exposed to such remarkable CCVs due to non-premixed combustion, although some
noteworthy cases exist, such as variations in the indicated mean effective pressure caused
by variations in the injected mass [21], variations in rotary fuel pump caused by variations
in the injection timing among the cycles [22], found from indicator diagram variations in
ignition delay of each cycle caused by variations in in-cylinder pressure [23].
Overall, factors affecting cyclic combustion variations include the mixing process
in the cylinder, circulation of intake air, components of mixtures, and characteristics of
ignition [24]. Thus, in the research on the combustion process, many parameters have to
be given significant importance, such as indicated maximum combustion pressure, mean
effective pressure, and rate of heat release, etc. Variations in these parameters may not
be periodically observed and may be affected by fuel amount, engine speed, intake air
temperature, and also other operating conditions [25].
It must be noted that the determination of the optimal operating limiting range of
different fuels plays an important role. Many biofuels have differences from conventional
diesel oxygen content, cetane number, as also physicochemical properties, which may result
in combustion variation problems [25]. For example, Bittle [26] have found that cycle-to-
cycle variability with biodiesel is on the same order as that of petroleum diesel fuel and
that the differences in fluid properties, and changes of their properties before combustion
could be the primary source for differences in cycle-to-cycle variability. Attai [27] observed
that biofuels with higher hydrogen content produce lower CCVs, as also burning rates due
to a higher flame speed. Yang [28] observed that biodiesel addition can effectively reduce
the CCVs of compression ignition engines at low engine loads, but at the same time he
concludes that oxygen content in biodiesel in the combustion process is less pronounced.
Turkcan [29], after tests with diesel engine with bioethanol-biodiesel-diesel ternary blends,
concluded that values of the coefficient of variation (COV) for maximum pressure rise
and maximum cylinder gas pressure increased with an increase in bioethanol content
in ternary blends. Bekal [30] have found that COV for peak pressure is higher for part
load for sunflower and pongamia oil methyl ester/diesel blends, which corresponds also
to higher values of brake specific energy consumption. Cycle-to-cycle variations of the
combustion process was also investigated by Longwic et al. During this research the mean
indicated pressure (MIP) variation, obtained for the diesel engine fueled with ethanol-
FAME blends and DF as reference fuel, was investigated using the wavelet transform. The
authors found that the MIP variations for DF were similar to the Gaussian white noise [31].
A similar problem was investigated by Asok et al. In this case, the fluctuations of MIP
were studied with the continuous wavelet transform. The performed tests confirmed that
depending on the engine’s rotational speed, the pressure variations may have a strong
periodic component and/or be intermittent [32]. Ali et al. [33] investigated CCVs in a
diesel engine fueled with biodiesel–diesel mixture with a DEE additive. The research was
carried out at 2500 rpm, and over 200 consecutive cycles were recorded. After that, the
mean effective pressure has been calculated. The authors concluded that the coefficient
of variation for biodiesel—diesel mixture (B30) was the lowest. They also found that this
coefficient value increased for the adequately higher additive ratios.
Similar to the above-mentioned results were found in studies of gaseous fuels. During
tests with a single-cylinder diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engine it was observed [34] that cyclic
Energies 2023, 16, 720 4 of 17

variability increases with increase in hydrogen enrichment and this variability is reduced
at higher engine loads. At the same time, Cheng [35] in research with a single-cylinder
compression ignition (CI) engine observed that the addition of hydrogen (H2) reduces
CCVs when the hydrogen mole fraction is smaller than 20%, but without any effect above
this limit; he also concluded that increase of the charge air temperature may lead high CCVs.
Selim [36] also observed that combustion noise and cycle variability are strongly dependent
on the type of gaseous fuel and their concentration after tests on a single-cylinder Ricardo
E6 engine working on dual fuel of diesel and LPG tests diesel–methane and pure diesel
fuel. Jagadish and Gumtapure [37] studied CCVs of diesel-raw biogas operated in dual fuel
mode at full load and constant speed conditions, where they found that COV of maximal
pressure for BG20 and BG40 is lower than that of the diesel by about 2.30% and 11.98%, but
the COV of indicated mean effective pressure for BG40 is found to be lesser than that of
diesel by about 88.87%.
Studies concerning CCVs have been performed also in the case of DME. For example,
Wang [38] reported that DME quantity should be optimized under different conditions
to minimize the CCVs and concurrently extend the operating range of the diesel-DME
premixed charge compression ignition engines. Shere [39] in the case of an HCCI engine
with DME observed that the coefficient of variation, maximum combustion pressure,
indicated mean effective pressure, and knocking intensity must be lower than the limiting
value (less than 5%), but the maximum rate of pressure rise must be lower the standard
limiting value.
COV fluctuations tend to be different, which is also confirmed by Attai [40], who found
that for engine loads greater than 25%, the COV for indicated mean effective pressure for
all blends of pyrolytic castor oil is less than 10 and the whole values of COV for maximal
pressure is less than 2.5, in the same conclusion that COV of combustion parameters is a
profound method of assessing combustion characteristics and engine performance. A simi-
lar conclusion was done by Kyrtatos [41] after experiments with heavy-duty single-cylinder
research engines claiming that it is necessary to understand the source of the pressure
fluctuations and the effect of these variations on single-cycle and average combustion
and emissions.
In the case of DEE, the number of such studies is limited, especially in the mixture
variants with vegetable oil. Therefore, the aim of this research is to assess the quality of
the combustion process of DEE/RO blends by analysis of the COVMIP . In this way, we
will extend the state of knowledge on the suitability of such mixtures for combustion in a
diesel engine.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Engine Test Stand and Methodology
All necessary tests were carried out at the engine and chemical laboratory of the
Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom. In detail, the view
of the test stand configuration is shown in Figure 1.
The main object of this study is the AD3.152 diesel engine made in Poland on a Perkins
license. It is well known, 3-cylinder engine equipped with a DPA fuel injection pump
and a direct injection fuel system. The engine reaches a maximum torque of 145–165 Nm
@ 1200–1400 rpm, depending on the fuel pump settings. The most fundamental techni-
cal details of this engine are shown in Table 1. The engine was coupled with the eddy
current dynamometer (engine dynamometer) made by AUTOMEX. According to the man-
ufacturer’s data, the dynamometer used can control the recorded engine torque with an
accuracy of 1 Nm.
Energies
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FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of
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Teststand
Figure1.1.Test
Figure standequipped
equippedwith
withthe
theAD3.152
AD3.152engine.
engine.

Table
Table1.1.Selected
Selecteddata
dataof
ofthe
theAD3.152
AD3.152engine.
engine.Developed
Developedfrom
from[15,42,43].
[15,42,43].

Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
Engine capacity
Engine capacity 2502
2502cm cm3
3

Cylinder
Cylindernumber
number 3,3,ininline
line
TopToppower
power 34.6 kW
34.6 kWatat21502150rpmrpm
Maximum
Maximum torque torque 165 Nm at 1200–1400
165 Nm at 1200–1400 rpm rpm
Compression ratio 16.5
Compression ratio 16.5
Fuel injection pressure 17 MPa
Fuel injection pressure
Crankshaft speed at idle run 17
750 MParpm
Crankshaft speed at
Fuel injection idle run
system 750 rpm
Lucas—CAV type DPA
FuelStart of injection
injection system 17◦ before TDC
Lucas—CAV typeatDPA
idle
Start of injection 17° before TDC at idle
In this study, a variability of the combustion process expressed by the coefficient of
In thisofstudy,
variation a variability
the mean indicated of pressure
the combustion
COVMIP process
has beenexpressed
performed by theforcoefficient
the AD3.152of
variation of thewith
engine fueled mean indicated
diethyl pressure COVMIPoil
ether (DEE)/rapeseed has been
(RO) performed
blends and with fordiesel
the AD3.152
fuel (DF)
engine fueledA
as reference. with diethylexperiment
necessary ether (DEE)/rapeseed oilfor
was repeated (RO)
theblends
constant and with diesel
conditions fuelengine
of the (DF)
as reference.
work, A necessary
expressed experiment
by the following wasand
torque repeated for the constant
the crankshaft rotational conditions
speed: of the en-
gine
1. work, expressed
100 Nm at 1200 rpm; by the following torque and the crankshaft rotational speed:
1.2. 100
140NmNmatat1200
1200rpm;rpm;
2.3. 140
100NmNmatat1200
1600rpm;rpm;
3.4. 100
140NmNmatat1600
1600rpm;rpm.
4. 140 Nm at 1600 rpm.
For all these constant conditions, 1024 consecutive cycles were recorded each time for
the engine
For all fueled with tested
these constant fuels. 1024 consecutive cycles were recorded each time
conditions,
for theThese
engine conditions
fueled with represent the medium and high load of the AD3.152 engine. All
tested fuels.
measurements were carried out
These conditions represent the medium within a few and
hours of one
high loadday
of for
the the same atmospheric
AD3.152 engine. All
conditions. Thus, the effect of the variability of these conditions on the
measurements were carried out within a few hours of one day for the same atmospheric recorded in-cylinder
pressure variations
conditions. Thus, the in the engine
effect of combustion chamber
the variability is negligible.
of these conditionsBefore
on the
the tests began,
recorded
the engine pressure
in-cylinder was adjusted according
variations in thetoengine
the manufacturer’s data. Tests
combustion chamber were started
is negligible. after
Before
the engine had warmed up to its normal operating temperature. Then
the tests began, the engine was adjusted according to the manufacturer’s data. Tests were the operating
parameters
started (speed
after the andhad
engine load) of the engine
warmed up to itsfueled with
normal the tested
operating fuel were set
temperature. andthe
Then its
thermal stabilization was ensured. As mentioned, under these conditions,
operating parameters (speed and load) of the engine fueled with the tested fuel were set the in-cylinder
pressure
and variations
its thermal were recorded
stabilization was for 1024 consecutive
ensured. cycles.under
As mentioned, This number was limited
these conditions, by
the
the technical capabilities of the measurement system used, equipped
in-cylinder pressure variations were recorded for 1024 consecutive cycles. This number with the KPCI 3110
measurement
was limited by theboard made by
technical Keithley of
capabilities Instruments, Inc. Allsystem
the measurement necessary
used,parameters
equipped withwere
 the KPCI 3110 measurement board made by Keithley Instruments, Inc. All necessary
Energies 2023, 16, 720
parameters were sampled in relationship to the angular position of the engine crankshaft
6 of 17
every 0.7 degrees of crankshaft angle (CA). For this purpose, the angle optical encoder
made by INTRON Company was used. The in-cylinder pressure was measured by the
AVL QC34D water-cooled piezoelectric sensor connected to a charge amplifier and then
sampled in relationship to the angular position of the engine crankshaft every 0.7 degrees
to the measurement board. The most important technical data of this sensor are listed in
of crankshaft angle (CA). For this purpose, the angle optical encoder made by INTRON
Table 2.
Company was used. The in-cylinder pressure was measured by the AVL QC34D water-
cooled piezoelectric sensor connected to a charge amplifier and then to the measurement
Table 2. Technical
board. The mostdata of the AVL
important QC34D
technical sensor.
data Developed
of this from
sensor are [44].
listed in Table 2.
Parameter Value
Table 2. Technical data of the AVL QC34D sensor. Developed from [44].
Measuring range 0–250 bar
Sensitivity
Parameter 10 pC/bar
Value
Linearity
Measuring range 0–250 bar +/− 0.2%
below
Sensitivity
Natural frequency 10 pC/bar
69 kHz
Linearity below +/− 0.2%
Cyclic temperature drift below +/− 0.3 bar
Natural frequency 69 kHz
CyclicLoad changedrift
temperature drift below +/4.5 mbar/ms
− 0.3 bar
Load change drift 4.5 mbar/ms
Noise occurring in the signal of the in-cylinder pressure was hardware filtered using
a low-pass
Noisefilter with in
occurring a cut-off frequency
the signal of 1 kHz.pressure was hardware filtered using a
of the in-cylinder
low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of processed
Recorded and denoised data were 1 kHz. accordingly using MathCad ver. 14
software with the
Recorded andWavelet
denoisedExtension pack. In particular,
data were processed accordinglythe usingvalue of mean
MathCad ver. indicated
14 soft-
pressure
ware with(MIP) has been
the Wavelet calculated
Extension pack.forInall recordedthecycles.
particular, value The MIPindicated
of mean is one ofpressure
the most
important
(MIP) hasparameters describing
been calculated the combustion
for all recorded cycles. process.
The MIPFor thisofreason,
is one the most it was selected
important
toparameters
analyze thedescribing the combustion
cycle-to-cycle variation of process. For this reason,
the combustion processit was
in aselected to analyze
diesel engine fueled
the cycle-to-cycle
with variation
tested fuels. The of the combustion
MIP value is calculatedprocess in a diesel
by dividing the engine
work perfueled with
cycle bytested
the cyl-
inder The MIP
fuels.volume value is calculated
displaced per cycle. byAsdividing
can be seenthe work
in theper cycle by the
in-cylinder cylindervs.
pressure volume
volume
displaced per cycle. As can be seen in the in-cylinder pressure vs. volume
relationship (Figure 2), two distinct areas i.e., Wp and Wn are marked in yellow and pink relationship
(Figure
color 2), two distinct
respectively. The areas WW
upperi.e., p andhas
p area
Wn been
are marked
formed in between
yellow and thepink color respec-
compression and
tively. The upper Wp area has been formed between the compression and power strokes,
power strokes, whereas the lower Wn area represents the pumping work. The difference
whereas the lower Wn area represents the pumping work. The difference between the
between the values of these areas corresponds to the indicated work Wi performed in the
values of these areas corresponds to the indicated work Wi performed in the cylinder
cylinder during one cycle of work.
during one cycle of work.

Figure
Figure2.2.Variation
Variation of the
the in-cylinder
in-cylinderpressure
pressurevs.vs. volume
volume of the
of the AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine (note:(note: bothare
both axes axes
are expressed
expressed in logarithmic
in logarithmic scale
scale for better
for better visibility
visibility of Wof
p W
andpWand
n W n areas).
areas).

Asmentioned
As mentionedabove,
above, the
the in-cylinder
in-cylinder pressure
pressurevariation
variationcan
canbebeexpressed
expressedbyby MIP
thethe MIP
value represented by the constant pressure acting on a piston within the one cycle of
value represented by the constant pressure acting on a piston within the one cycle of en- engine
work.
gine In simplicity
work. the MIP
In simplicity can be
the MIP calculated
can as follows:
be calculated as follows:
Wp − Wn
MIP = (1)
V
Energies 2023, 16, 720 7 of 17

where:
• Wp is an indicated work (yellow area in Figure 2),
• Wn is work of pumping (pink area in Figure 2),
• V is cylinder displacement i.e., the volume between Top Dead Center (TDC) and
Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
It is considered that in the case of a diesel engine operating in steady conditions, the
variability of the fuel combustion process should be as low as possible. A commonly known
measure of this cyclic variability is the coefficient of variation of mean indicated pressure
COVMIP . The value of this coefficient can be calculated as follows:
 
SD MIP
COVMIP = ·100% (2)
MIPmean

where:
• SDMIP is standard deviation of MIP,
• MIPmean is the mean value of MIP.
It is expected that the value of the COVMIP should be as low as possible. For the stable
fuel combustion process, the value of this parameter is usually less than 3%.

2.2. Tested Fuels

In this study, the DEE/RO fuel blends prepared in volumetric ratios 10:90, 20:80, 30:70
and 40:60 and a pure RO were examined. Moreover, a DF meeting the requirements of
EN590 standard has been tested as reference fuel. RO tested in this research was made by
KRUSZWICA Company. The reference DF was produced by PKN ORLEN and DEE with
purity no less than 99.5% was made by POCH Company. Selected physicochemical proper-
ties of all test fuels were carried out at the Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and
Humanities in Radom. Fundamental properties of these fuels i.e., DEE, RO, and DF are
listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Selected physicochemical properties of tested fuels. Developed from [15,42].

Fuel
Property Method
RO DEE DF
Density @ 15 ◦ C, g/cm3 ISO 12185:1996 0.921 0.710 0.832
Viscosity @ 40 ◦ C, mm2 /s ASTM D7042 34.30 0.23 3.45
LHV, MJ/kg ASTM D240-02:2007 36.9 33.8 43.9
Surface tension, mN/m ISO 304:1985 45.8 16.8 32.1
CFPP, ◦ C EN 116:1997 28.0 -a 3.0
FP, ◦ C PN-EN 2719 >300 −40 60
Cetane number ASTM D6890/D613 37 125 b 51
a unmesurable, b data reported in ref. [45].

Diethyl ether (C4 H10 O) is considered an oxygenated fuel with an O2 content of 21.6%
by mass. This ether can be easily blended with DF and plant oils, reducing their viscosity
significantly. In this way, DEE/plant oils blends are more suitable as a fuel for diesel
engines. An important advantage of DEE is its high derived cetane number (DCN). In
studies carried out on an ignition quality tester (IQT), DCN even higher than 125 of DEE
was obtained [45]. In the case of DF, the cetane number (CN) should be no less than
51 according to EN590 requirements. It should be pointed out that DCN and CN do not
mean the same thing.
As mentioned, in this study DEE/RO blends were examined. The physicochemical
properties of these blends were tested for volumetric ratios: 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, and 40:60.
For these mixtures, selected physicochemical properties are listed in Table 4.
 As mentioned, in this study DEE/RO blends were examined. The physicochemical
properties of these blends were tested for volumetric ratios: 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, and 40:60.
Energies 2023, 16, 720 For these mixtures, selected physicochemical properties are listed in Table 4. 8 of 17

Table 4. Physicochemical specification of tested blends.

Table 4. Physicochemical specification of tested blends.
Property Blend
PropertyDEE:RO ratio 10:20 20:80
Blend 30:70 40:60
DEE:RO ratio@ 15 °C, g/cm 10:20
Density 0.903 0.88730:70 0.869 0.845
3
20:80 40:60
@ 15 ◦ C, g/cm
Density Viscosity @ 403 °C, mm2/s0.903 17.4
0.887 10.20.869 6.3 3.1
0.845
◦ C, mm2 /s 17.4 10.2
Viscosity @ 40
Lower heating value, MJ/kg 36.5 36.1 6.3 36.0 3.1
35.7
Lower heating value, MJ/kg
Surface tension, mN/m 36.5 36.1
40.9 36.836.0 30.6 35.7
26.6
Surface tension, mN/m 40.9 36.8 30.6 26.6
Cold
Cold filter filter plugging
plugging Point, ◦ C Point, °C
13 −13
4 −4 −20 −20 −29−29

Too high viscosity of plant oils is not favorable due to poor atomization of the fuel
Tooinjected
droplets high viscosity
into theofcombustion
plant oils is not favorable
chamber. due toa poor
In addition atomization
flow of of theplant
a more viscous fuel
droplets injected into the combustion chamber. In addition a flow of a more
oil increases mechanical loses in the engine. As can be seen in Table 4, DEE reduces RO viscous plant
oil increases
viscosity andmechanical loses significantly.
surface tension in the engine.These
As can be seen
factors in Table
improve the4, fuel
DEEatomization
reduces RO
viscosity and surface tension significantly. These factors improve the fuel atomization
affecting the quality of the combustion process. Moreover, the addition of DEE improves
affecting the quality of the combustion process. Moreover, the addition of DEE improves
the low—temperature properties of RO, i.e., cold filter plugging point (CFPP) obtained
the low—temperature properties of RO, i.e., cold filter plugging point (CFPP) obtained for
for DEE30 and DEE40 allow us to consider these blends as a winter fuel. On the other
DEE30 and DEE40 allow us to consider these blends as a winter fuel. On the other hand,
hand, DEE has a lower heating value (LHV) compared with DF. For this reason, the en-
DEE has a lower heating value (LHV) compared with DF. For this reason, the engine fueled
gine fueled with DEE can reach a lower power and torque.
with DEE can reach a lower power and torque.
3.
3. Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
Figure
Figure 3 shows the
3 shows the average
average value
value of
of MIP
MIPavg calculated for 1024 consecutive cycles of
avg calculated for 1024 consecutive cycles of
the AD3.152 engine powered with tested fuels.
the AD3.152 engine powered with tested fuels.

Figure 3. The MIPavg calculated for the AD3.152 engine fueled with tested fuels.
Figure 3. The MIPavg calculated for the AD3.152 engine fueled with tested fuels.
As can be seen in Figure 3, the MIPavg calculated for the specified engine operating
As can is
conditions becomparable
seen in Figure for 3,
allthe MIPfuels.
tested avg calculated for the specified engine operating
In this case, the observed differences do
conditions is comparable for all tested
not exceed 2% (for the same work conditions). fuels. In this case, theitobserved
However, differences
can be noted do MIP
that the not
exceed 2% (for the
values obtained forsame
RO arework conditions).
slightly However,
higher than it can
for a DF. Thisbeis noted
due tothat
the the MIPviscosity
higher values
obtained for RO are slightly higher than for a DF. This is due to the higher
of the plant fuel, which results in slightly higher pumping resistance. This requires viscosity of thea
plant fuel, which results in slightly higher pumping resistance. This
correspondingly larger dose of fuel injected into the combustion chamber, the combustion requires a corre-
spondingly largerin
of which results dose of fuel injected
a noticeable increaseintointheMIPcombustion
value. It ischamber, the combustion
noted, that increasing theof
which results in a noticeable increase in MIP value. It is noted, that increasing
rotational speed of the crankshaft increases the engine’s mechanical losses. For this reason, the rota-
at the same output torque, it is necessary to adequately increase the dose of fuel burned,
which results in an increase in the value of MIP. Taking into account Figure 3, it can be
concluded that the tested engine can be powered with DEE/RO blends. Under the set
load conditions, the engine powered by the tested fuels obtains comparable MIP values.
However, further analysis of these fuels’ combustion process indicates that their combustion
 tional speed of the crankshaft increases the engine’s mechanical losses. For this reason, at
the same output torque, it is necessary to adequately increase the dose of fuel burned,
which results in an increase in the value of MIP. Taking into account Figure 3, it can be
concluded that the tested engine can be powered with DEE/RO blends. Under the set
Energies 2023, 16, 720 9 of 17
load conditions, the engine powered by the tested fuels obtains comparable MIP values.
However, further analysis of these fuels’ combustion process indicates that their com-
bustion does not occur in the same repetitive way. This is visible in Figures 4–7. These
does not
graphs occur
show in MIP
the the same repetitive
value way. in
calculated This is visible
each cycleinofFigures 4–7. These
1024 cycles graphswith
recorded showthe en-
the MIP value calculated in each cycle of 1024 cycles recorded with the engine running on
gine running on the test fuel.
the test fuel.

MIP calculated
Figure4.4.MIP
Figure calculated for
for1024
1024consecutive
consecutivecycles recorded
cycles for the
recorded forAD3.152 engineengine
the AD3.152 fueled fueled
with with
tested fuels, operated with 100 Nm at 1200
tested fuels, operated with 100 Nm at 1200 rpm.rpm.

Figure 4 represents data obtained for the AD3.152 engine worked with 100 Nm
Figure 4 represents data obtained for the AD3.152 engine worked with 100 Nm at
at 1200 rpm. In this case, the engine fueled with DF generates the average value of
1200
MIPrpm. In this case, the engine fueled with DF generates the average value of MIPavg =
avg = 0.65 MPa with the standard deviation σ = 0.021. A similar distribution of the
measurement points is visible for the engine fueled with RO as well as with DEE10 and
DEE20 i.e., fuels containing up to 20% by vol. of DEE in blend with RO. Further increase
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

0.65 MPa with the standard deviation 𝜎 = 0.021. A similar distribution of the measure-
Energies 2023, 16, 720 ment points is visible for the engine fueled with RO as well as with DEE1010and of 17 DEE20
i.e., fuels containing up to 20% by vol. of DEE in blend with RO. Further increase of DEE
concentration in blend with RO causes an increase in the dispersion of the measurement
points
of DEEin relation to in
concentration theblend
average value.
with RO This
causes anisincrease
also visible for other of
in the dispersion engine operating
the mea-
surement points
conditions. in5relation
Figure to the
represents theaverage
MIP valuevalue. This is also
calculated for visible for other
the engine engine
operated with 100
operating conditions. Figure 5 represents the MIP value calculated for the engine
Nm at 1600 rpm. In this case, the average MIP value calculated for DF is 0.702 MPa with oper-
ated= with
SD 100whereas
0.022, Nm at 1600 rpm.
these In this case,
parameters the average
calculated forMIP valueequals
DEE40 calculated forand
0.699 DF is0.05, re-
0.702 MPa with SD = 0.022, whereas these parameters calculated for DEE40 equals 0.699
spectively.
and 0.05, respectively.

5. MIP
Figure 5.
Figure MIP calculated
calculatedfor
for1024 consecutive
1024 cycles
consecutive recorded
cycles for the
recorded forAD3.152 engine engine
the AD3.152 fueled with
fueled with
tested fuels, operated with 100 Nm at 1600 rpm.
tested fuels, operated with 100 Nm at 1600 rpm.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

Energies 2023, 16, 720 11 of 17

Increasing the engine load from 100 to 140 Nm does not change the relationships
observed so far.the
Increasing This is confirmed
engine load fromin Figure
100 to 1406,Nm
which
doesshows the MIP
not change values obtained for
the relationships
the engine
observed so operating at a load in
far. This is confirmed ofFigure
140 Nm. In this
6, which case,
shows thethe
MIPaverage MIP value
values obtained varies be-
for the
engine0.881–0.899
tween operating at MPa
a loaddepending
of 140 Nm. onIn this
thecase,
kindthe
of average MIP Again,
fuel tested. value varies between disper-
the greatest
0.881–0.899
sion of the MPa depending on
measurement the kind
points of fuel tested.
in relation to theAgain, the greatest
average dispersion
MIP value of the
was observed for
measurement points
blends DEE30 and DEE40. in relation to the average MIP value was observed for blends DEE30
and DEE40.

Figure 6. MIP calculated for 1024 consecutive cycles recorded for the AD3.152 engine fueled with
Figure 6. MIP calculated for 1024 consecutive cycles recorded for the AD3.152 engine fueled with
tested fuels, operated with 140 Nm at 1200 rpm.
tested fuels, operated with 140 Nm at 1200 rpm.

An increase in the crankshaft rotational speed at the same torque 140 Nm causes a
further increase of the MIP average value. In detail, Figure 7 confirms that the standard
deviation obtained for MIP in an engine fueled with DEE40 fuel is approx. 3 times higher
compared with the AD3.152 engine fueled with DF.
 Energies 2023, 16, 720 12 of 17

An increase in the crankshaft rotational speed at the same torque 140 Nm causes a
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
further increase of the MIP average value. In detail, Figure 7 confirms that the standard 12 of 1
deviation obtained for MIP in an engine fueled with DEE40 fuel is approx. 3 times higher
compared with the AD3.152 engine fueled with DF.

Figure7.7.MIP
Figure MIP calculated
calculated for for
10241024 consecutive
consecutive cyclescycles recorded
recorded for the for the AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine fueled fueled with
with
testedfuels,
tested fuels, operated
operated with
with 140140
NmNm at 1600
at 1600 rpm. rpm.

Figures
Figures4–74–7
show the dispersion
show of the measurement
the dispersion points obtained
of the measurement pointsin the performed
obtained in the per
tests. While the summary of these results was quantified by the coefficient of variation of the
formed tests. While the summary of these results was quantified by the coefficient o
variation of the mean indicated pressure COVMIP. Figure 8 confirms that for all meas
urement conditions, the COVMIP value is comparable for the engine fueled with DF, RO
and DEE/RO blends containing up to 20% by vol. of DEE in a mixture with RO. In th
Energies 2023, 16, 720 13 of 17

mean indicated pressure COVMIP . Figure 8 confirms that for all measurement conditions,
the COVMIP value is comparable for the engine fueled with DF, RO, and DEE/RO blends
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
containing up to 20% by vol. of DEE in a mixture with RO. In the case of DEE30 and13DEE40
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17
the COVMIP value is approx. two or even three times higher than COVMIP calculated for
other tested fuels, in particular for DF as reference.

Figure 8. Impact of tested fuels on COVMIP calculated for the AD3.152 engine.
Impactofoftested
Figure8.8.Impact
Figure testedfuels
fuelson COVMIP
onCOV MIP calculated
calculated forfor the
the AD3.152engine.
AD3.152 engine.
The obtained results showed that the combustion process of RO containing large
The obtained
The obtainedresults
resultsshowed
showedthat thatthethecombustion
combustionprocess
processof ofRO
RO containing
containinglarge
large
amounts
amounts ofofDEE
DEE ininthe
theblend
blend isismore
more unstable.
unstable. Such
Such an
an engine
engine obtains
obtains the
theappropriate
appropriate
amounts
torque, of DEE in the blend is more is unstable. Such an engine obtains the appropriate
torque,but
butitsitsuniformity
uniformityofofoperation
operation iscorrespondingly
correspondinglyworse worsethan
thanininthe
thecase
caseofofdiesel
diesel
torque,
fuel. but its uniformity of operation is correspondingly worse thanofinDEE/RO
the caseblends
of diesel
fuel. The reason for the higher variability of the combustion process of DEE/RO blendsisis
The reason for the higher variability of the combustion process
fuel.disturbance
the The reason forthe the higher variability of the combustion theprocess of Figure
DEE/RO blends is
the disturbanceof of the fuel
fuel injection process,
injection process, as shown
as shown inthe
in example
example Figure 9.9.This
Thisfigure
fig-
the
ure disturbance
shows of the fuel injection process, as shown in the example Figure 9. This fig-
shows twotwo consecutive
consecutive work work cycles,
cycles, i.e.,i.e.,
no.no.70 70
andand
71 71 recorded
recorded in the
in the AD3.152
AD3.152 en-
engine,
ure shows
gine, operatedtwowith
consecutive
100 Nm work
at 1200 cycles,
rpm i.e.,fueled
and no. 70with
and DEE40
71 recorded
blend. in the AD3.152 en-
operated with 100 Nm at 1200 rpm and fueled with DEE40 blend.
gine, operated with 100 Nm at 1200 rpm and fueled with DEE40 blend.

Variationofofthe
Figure9.9.Variation
Figure thein-cylinder
in-cylinderpressure
pressureand
andthe
thefuel
fuelinjector
injectorneedle
needlelift
liftvs.
vs.CA
CArecorded
recordedatat
Figure
cycle 9.70
cycleno.
no. Variation
and7171ofof
70and the
ofthe in-cylinder
theengine
engine work.pressure and the fuel injector needle lift vs. CA recorded at
work.
cycle no. 70 and 71 of the engine work.
TheAD3.152
The AD3.152 engine fueledfueled with
withDEE40
DEE40blend
blendandandoperated
operated with 100100
with NmNmat 1200 rpm
at 1200
rpm The
generates AD3.152
generates engine
MIPMIP
the the avg = fueled
avg0.648
with
bar.bar.
= 0.648 DEE40
However,
However, blend
thethe and
exemplary operated
exemplary two
two with 100
consecutive
consecutiveNm
work at
work 1200
cycles
cy-
rpm
cles generates
of this
of engine
this the
engine MIP
areare avg = 0.648
significantly
significantly bar. However,
different. AtAt
different. cycletheno.
cycleexemplary
70,70,
no. thethe two
MIPMIP=consecutive
0.576
= 0.576bar, work
whereas
bar, whereascy-in
cles
the
in of
the thiscycle
next
next engine
no.
cycle are
no.71 significantly
theMIP
71the different.
MIP== 0.731
0.731 bar. Atlower
bar. The
The cycle no.
lower MIP70,
MIP inthe
in MIP
cycle
cycle no.=70
no. 0.576
70 wasbar,
was whereas
caused
caused byaa
by
in the next cycle
disturbance no.
in the 71 injection
fuel the MIP =process.
0.731 bar.
In The lower MIP
particular, in cycle
the fuel no. needle
nozzle 70 washas
caused
liftedbytoa
disturbance in the fuel injection process. In particular, the fuel nozzle needle
a lower height and the fuel dose was divided. This caused the injection of a correspond- has lifted to
a lower height and the fuel dose was divided. This caused the injection
ingly smaller dose of fuel into the combustion chamber and a temporary reduction in the of a correspond-
ingly smaller
rotational dose
speed of of
thefuel into the combustion
crankshaft. chamber
In the next engine and the
cycle, a temporary reduction
control system in the
increased
rotational speed of the crankshaft. In the next engine cycle, the control system increased
Energies 2023, 16, 720 14 of 17

disturbance in the fuel injection process. In particular, the fuel nozzle needle has lifted to a
lower height and the fuel dose was divided. This caused the injection of a correspondingly
smaller dose of fuel into the combustion chamber and a temporary reduction in the rota-
tional speed of the crankshaft. In the next engine cycle, the control system increased the
fuel dose so as to achieve the set torque value. For this reason, the MIP in cycle 71 increased
to 0.731 bar. This time the fuel injection process was successful, the fuel nozzle needle has
lifted to the full height, injecting the right dose of fuel into the combustion chamber. It can
be assumed that the cause of malfunctions in the fuel injector work is vapor lock formed in
the fuel system caused by the evaporation of volatile DEE. Our experience shows that it is
also the reason for the difficult start-up of an engine fueled with vegetable oil with a large
DEE content.

4. Conclusions
Plant-based oils can be used as a diesel fuel. However, due to their considerable vis-
cosity, they should be suitably modified to resemble diesel fuel with their physicochemical
properties. One such method is to blend plant oil with, for example, suitable alcohols or
ethers. Literature reports indicate that such a valuable addition to plant oil can be DEE.
This ether also has a positive effect on reducing emissions of some harmful components of
exhaust gases. In contrast, the present study showed that the use of high concentrations of
DEE in a mixture with RO causes greater disruption of the combustion process. Analysis of
the COVMIP showed that the use of DEE in volumes above 20% in a mixture with RO is
unfavorable, as it causes a significant increase in the COVMIP . In the case of the AD3.152
engine fueled with DEE30 and DEE40, the COVMIP was even 3 times higher than COVMIP
obtained for the engine fueled with DF, RO, and DEE10 and DEE20. It means that from
cycle to cycle the combustion process of DEE30 and DEE40 is more and more unstable.
In this case, engine vibration and the temporary load of the crankshaft increase, which
should be considered a disadvantageous feature of the engine powered by the DEE/RO
fuel blend. The identified disturbances in the combustion of DEE/RO mixtures may be
caused by the so-called vapor lock formed in the fuel system during the evaporation of
volatile DEE. Limiting this phenomenon may require the use of an appropriate system to
cool the fuel supplied to the injectors.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.G., R.S. and D.T.; methodology, K.G. and R.S.; software,
K.G.; validation, J.M. and D.T.; formal analysis, R.S., J.M.; investigation, K.G. and R.S.; resources,
J.M. and D.T.; data curation, K.G., R.S. and J.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.G., R.S.
and D.T.; writing—review and editing, J.M.; visualization, K.G. and R.S.; supervision, K.G.; project
administration, D.T.; and funding acquisition, D.T., R.S. and J.M. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BDC Bottom dead center
CA Crank angle
CAV Charles Anthony Vandervell
CCVs Cycle-to-cycle variations
CFPP Cold filter plugging point
CI Compression ignition
CN Cetane number
CP Cloud point
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
Energies 2023, 16, 720 15 of 17

COVMIP Coefficient of variation of mean indicated pressure

DCN Derived cetane number
DEE10 10% DEE by vol. in blend with 90% RO by vol.
DEE20 20% DEE by vol. in blend with 80% RO by vol.
DEE30 30% DEE by vol. in blend with 70% RO by vol.
DEE40 40% DEE by vol. in blend with 60% RO by vol.
DEE Diethyl ether
DME Dimethyl ether
DF Diesel fuel
DI Direct injection
DPA Distributor pump assembly
EN European norm
FAME Fatty acids methyl esters
FP Flash point
HC Hydrocarbon
HCCI Homogeneous charge compression ignition
IQT Ignition quality tester
MIP Mean indicated pressure
LHV Lower heating value
NOX Nitrogen oxides
PP Pour point
RO Rapeseed oil
rpm Revolutions per minute
SD Standard deviation
SVO Straight vegetable oil
T Torque
TDC Top dead center
THC Total hydrocarbons
V1 Combustion chamber volume
V2 Cylinder volume

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