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EE : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electrical and Electronic Measurements

INDEX

Sr. Pg.
Contents SubTopics
No. No.
1. Bridges and Potentiometer
D.C. Potentiometers 1
Application of D.C. Potentiometers 2
Calibrations by D.C. Potentiometers 3
A.C. Potentiometers 5
Application of A.C. Potentiometers 8
A.C. Bridges 10
Sources and Detectors 10
Notes
General Equation for Bridge Balance 10
Measurement of Self Inductance 11
Measurement of Capacitance 15
Measurement of Mutual Inductance 18
Measurement of Frequency 20
Wagner Earthing Device 21
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 22
Assignment1 Questions 23
Test Paper1 Questions 25
Sr. Pg.
Contents SubTopics
No. No.
2. Analog Ammeters and Voltmeter
Moving Coil Instruments 28
Induction type Instruments 32
Notes
Moving Iron Instruments 33
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 36
Assignment2 Questions 37
Test Paper2 Questions 39
3. Measurement of Power and Energy
Power in D.C. Circuit 42
Power in A.C. Circuit 42
Electrodynamometer Wattmeters 42
Error in Electrodynamometer Wattmeters 44
Measurement of Power in 3 Circuit 49
Motor Meters 53
Braking in Motor Meters 54
Notes
Single Phase Induction Type Energymeter 55
Energymeter Adjustments 56
Lag Adjustment Devices 57
Testing of Energy Meters 58
Testing Methods 59
Meter Testing Circuits 61
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 62
Assignment3 Questions 64
Test Paper3 Questions 66
4. Measurement of Power factor, Frequency and Resistance
Introduction 69
Types of Power Factor Meters 69
Frequency of Meters 72
Classification of Resistances 76
Notes
Measurement of Medium Resistances 76
Measurement of Low Resistance 81
Measurement of High Resistance 84
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 85
Assignment4 Questions 87
Sr. Pg.
Contents SubTopics
No. No.
5. Instrument Transformer, Qmeter, Potentiometric Recorder,
Digital Voltmeter
Introduction 90
Current Transformer 90
Potential Transformer 93
Notes
Types of Digital Voltmeter 94
Potentiometric Recorder 99
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 99
Assignment5 Questions 101
Test Paper5 Questions 102
6. Error Analysis
Limiting Errors 104
Relative Limiting Errors 104
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors 104
Known Errors 107
Notes
Types of Errors 107
Statistical Treatment of Data 108
Uncertainties in the Result 113
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 113
Assignment6 Questions 114
Test Paper6 Questions 116
Practice Problems 118
Model Solutions
Answer Key to Assignments 126
Model Solutions to Assignment  1 127
Model Solutions to Assignment  2 127
Model Solutions to Assignment  3 127
Model Solutions to Assignment  4 127
Model Solutions to Assignment  6 128
Answer Key to Test Paper 129
Model Solutions to Test Paper  1 130
Model Solutions to Test Paper  3 131
Model Solutions to Test Paper  6 134
Answer Key to Practice Problems 136
Model Solutions to Practice Problems 137
 Topic 1 : Bridges and Potentiometers

Introduction
POTENTIOMETERS

D.C A.C

D.C. POTENTIOMETERS
It is an instrument used for the measurement of unknown voltage by comparing it with
known voltage which may be supplied either by standard cell or other known voltage
reference source.
This method of measurement using comparison provides high accuracy because result
does not depend on deflection of pointer , but only upon accuracy with which voltage of
reference source is known.
Potentiometer makes use of balance or null condition and therefore no current flows and
hence no power is consumed in the circuit containing the unknown emf when the
instrument is balanced.

Potentiometer is used for the calibration of voltmeter and ammeters.

a) Basic Potentiometer Circuit

The circuit for slide wire potentiometer consists of battery ‘ B1 ’ which sends a current
through slide wire AD of uniform section.
Regulating resistor ‘R’ limits the slide wire current.
‘ B2 ’ is the battery whose emf is to be measured Galvanometer G is connected in
series with battery along with switch S.
Let ρ = resistance / length of slide wire
I = current flowing through it when switch is open

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.1
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Then if length AC =  then voltage VAC across AC will be

VAC = Iρ 

Now when switch is closed, current will flow through galvanometer in the direction A
to C if VAC is greater than emf of B2 .

Suppose we want to compare emfs of 2 batteries B2 and B3 .

‘ B2 ’ is connected as shown in Fig. and sliding contact is adjusted such that no
current flows through galvanometer. Let this length of AC1 be 1 .

Now B2 is replaced by B3 and contact C is again adjusted such that no current

flows through galvanometer. Let this length AC2 be  2
Let E1 and E2 be emf’s of batteries B 2 and B3 respectively
Then
E1 = I ρ 1 and E2 = I ρ  2
E1 1
or = (1)
E2 2
1
Accuracy of measurement depends on the accuracy with which is determined.
2
b) Standardisation of Potentiometer
The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop across
a portion of sliding wire against a standard reference source is known as
standardisation.

c) Constructional Details of Potentiometer

Wires of all resistors except slide wire are made of manganin because of its high
stability, low temperature coefficient and are free from thermoelectric effect against
copper. Slide wires are made of platinum − silver alloy and sliding contact of copper
−gold−silver alloy. This results in good contact freedom from thermoelectric emf and
minimum wear of slide wire.

Internal thermo−electric emf in a potentiometer should be minimum and this is

achieved by manganin resistors.

To prevent leakage all the parts must be enclosed so as to protect then from
moisture.

APPLICATION OF D.C POTENTIOMETERS

1. Measurement of Resistance

The unknown resistance R to be measured is connected in series with standard

resistance S.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.2
 Bridges and Potentiometer

Then the value of unknown resistance R

VR
R = .S
VS
VR = reading of potentiometer
when connected to ‘R’.
VS = reading of potentiometer
when connected to ‘S’.
The potentiometer method of measurement of resistance is suitable for measurement
of low resistances.
2. Measurement of Power

Measurement of power with potentiometer

Two measurements are made, one across standard resistance S connected in series
with load and other across at output terminals of the volt ratio box.

Current through load I = VS / S

Voltage across the load V = KVR
Where VS = reading of potentiometer when connected across S
VR = reading of potentiometer when connected across volt−ratio box
K = multiplying factor of volt−ratio box.
∴ Power consumed P = VI
V
= KVR . S
S

CALIBRATION BY DC POTENTIOMETERS
1. Calibration of Voltmeter

Calibration of voltmeter with potentiometer

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

The basic requirement in voltmeter calibration process is a stable d.c. voltage supply
because any change in the supply voltage will cause a corresponding change in the
voltmeter calibration.

For accuracy, voltage is measured near the maximum range of potentiometer. The
potentiometer measure the true voltage.

2. Calibration of Ammeter

Calibration of an ammeter with potentiometer

A standard resistor of suitable value and sufficient current carrying capacity is placed
in series with ammeter under calibration.
VS
Current I =
S

VS = voltage across standard resistor as indicated by potentiometer.

S = resistance of standard resistor

This method of calibration is very accurate because standard resistor is accurately

known and voltage across standard resistor is measured by potentiometer.

3. Calibration of Wattmeter

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.4
 Bridges and Potentiometer

The arrangement shown here is known as Phantom loading.

In phantom loading pressure coil is supplied from required normal voltage and current
circuit from separate low voltage supply.

Voltage V and current I are measured with potentiometer employing D.P.D.T switch. The
true power is then VI and the wattmeter reading may be compared with this value.

A.C. POTENTIOMETERS
A.C potentiometer works on the same principle as D.C potentiometer except that in D.C
potentiometer we were concerned only with magnitude of unknown emf while in A.C
potentiometer we take both the magnitude and phase of unknown emf.

a) Standardization of A.C. Potentiometers

The a.c. potentiometers are made direct reading type i.e., readings are read off
directly from the dial settings.

This is achieved by standardizing the a.c. potentiometer as done in case of d.c.

potentiometer.

Standardization of a.c potentiometer is done with the help of standard d.c. source
i.e., a standard cell or a zener source and a transfer instrument.

Transfer instrument is usually electrodynamometer milliammeter, so constructed that

its response to alternating currents is same as its d.c. response. Such as instrument
can be calibrated on d.c and then brought to the same setting on a.c.

Alternatively a thermocouple instrument may be used as transfer instrument.

b) Type of A.C. Potentiometers

1. Polar Type:
In this potentiometer, unknown voltage is balanced by single voltage (known as
standard or reference voltage) which is continuously variable in both magnitude
and phase.

2. Coordinate Type:
In this potentiometer, balance is obtained by two voltages which are in
quadrature. Each of these voltages can be varied in magnitude and means are
provided to maintain the quadrature phase relationship.

Drysdale Polar Potentiometer

Here the unknown voltage is measured in polar form i.e., in terms of magnitude OQ and
phase θ .

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.5
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE
Q
To measure the unknown voltage it is compared
with standard or reference voltage OP with
phase φ . P
r
Length ‘r’ of OP can be varied with the help of
sliding contact while phase shifter provide phase
φ θ
variation. O

Drysdale polar potentiometer

Slide wire AB is supplied from phase shifter which is arranged such that magnitude of
voltage supplied by it remains constant while phase can be varied through 360 .
Therefore slide wire current IS is constant in magnitude but can be varied in phase.

In phase shifter circuit, L1 and L 2 are stator coils in parallel supplied from same source.
I1 and I2 differ by 90 .

A rotating flux is produced by these two stator winding which inducers a secondary emf
in the rotor winding which is of constant magnitude but whose phase can be varied by
rotating the rotor in any position. Phase of rotor emf is read from circular gradual dial.
The ammeter A is of electrodynamic or thermal type. Before using polar potentiometer, it
is calibrated by using d.c. supply for slide wire and standard cell for test terminals
T1 and T2 .

The unknown a.c. voltage is applied across test terminals T1 and T2 and balance is
achieved by alternate adjustment of slide wire contact and the position of phase shifting
rotor.

The slide wire reading represents the reading of the test voltage and phase shifter
reading gives its phase with reference to an arbitrary reference vector.

Gall − Tinsley (Coordinate Type) A.C Potentiometer

In this potentiometer, the unknown voltage vector OQ is measured from in phase

component (i.e., component rcos φ along x−axis also called x−component) and
quadrature component (i.e., rsin φ along y−axis also called y−component).

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.6
 Bridges and Potentiometer
y

Vsin φ V

φ
x
Vcos φ

Let V1 and V2 be the inphase and quadrature components of the unknown voltage ‘V’
respectively
Then V1 = V cos φ
V2 = V sinφ

∴ V = V12 + V22
⎛V ⎞
and φ = tan−1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ V1 ⎠

Gall co−ordinate potentiometer

Here the potentiometer uses two slide wires AB and CD with their currents I1 and I2
having mutual phase difference of 90 . The two currents are obtained form 1 − φ supply
through shielded isolating transformers T1 and T2 .

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.7
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

I/P transformer T2 is connected to the i/P of T1 through phase splitting circuit P. AB is

the slide wire for in phase component V1 , while CD is the slide wire for quadrature
component V2

Quadrature Adjustments of Currents

Phase splitting circuit

The action of phase splitting circuit can be explained with the help of equivalent circuit
shown in Fig.
R1, L1 = equivalent resistance and inductance of inphase potentiometer circuit .
R2 , L 2 = equivalent resistance and inductance of quadrature potentiometer circuit.
When potentiometer currents are equal and are in quadrature.
I2 = jI1
V V
or =j
(
R + R2 j ωL 2 − 1/ ωC ) R1 + jωL1

⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ R1 + jωL1 = j(R + R2 ) − ⎜ ωL 2 −
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠
Comparing real and imaginary parts of both side,
1
R1 + ωL 2 =
ωC
ωL1 − R2 = R
The phase splitting is adjusted by means of R and C.

APPLICATION OF A.C POTENTIOMETERS

1. Voltmeter Calibration:

Low voltages upto 1.5V can be measured directly.

Higher voltages can be measured by using a volt − box (for medium voltages) or two
capacitors in series (for high voltages) in conjunction with potentiometer.

2. Ammeter Calibration:

The measurement of various alternating currents required for calibration is made by

non inductive standard resistors with the potentiometer.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.8
 Bridges and Potentiometer

3. Wattmeter and Energymeter Testing:

The testing circuit is same as that used for d.c. potentiometers.

A phase shifting transformer is included in the potential circuit to vary the phase of
voltage with respect to current so that the wattmeters and energymeter are tested at
various power factors.

4. Measurement of self reactance of a coil:

Measurement of self reactance of a coil

A standard resistance S is connected in series with the coil whose reactance is to be
measured.
Two voltage measurements are done, one across S and other across the coil.
Suppose polar type potentiometer is used and the readings are

Voltage across standard resistor S = Vs ∠θs

Voltage across the coil Vc = Vc ∠θc
Vs
∴ Current through coil I = ∠θs
S
Vc S Vc ∠θc
Impedance of coil Z = =
I Vs ∠θs
SVc
= ∠θc − θs
Vs
∴ Resistance of coil R = Z cos (θc − θs )
SVc
= cos (θc − θs )
Vs
Reactance of coil X = Z sin (θc − θs )
SVc
= sin (θc − θs )
Vs

5. Other Applications:

It includes the measurement of ratio and phase angle errors of current transformers
measurement of coreloss and magnetizing current for specimens of the sheet steel,
measurement of alternating magnetic fields and the measurement of capacitance.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.9
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

A.C. BRIDGES
A.C bridges are used for the measurement of inductance, capacitance, storage factor,
loss factor etc.
It bears a strong resemblance to d.c. wheatstone bridge.
Z1 Z4
= or Z1 Z3 = Z2 Z4 Z1
Z2 Z3 Z2
i.e., product of impedance of opposite arms are equal
D

Z4 Z3

SOURCES AND DETECTORS

At low frequency, power line may act as source of supply to bridge circuit.
At higher frequencies, electronic oscillators are used.
Electronic oscillators have constant frequency, are easily adjustable and fairly accurate
with frequency range of 40 Hz to 125 kHz with power output of 7W.

Detectors : Commonly used detectors are

(i) Headphones : At frequencies of 250 Hz and over upto 3 or 4 KHz.
(ii) Vibration galvanometers: At power and low frequency range typically between
5Hz − 1000 Hz but usually below 200 Hz.
(iii) Tuneable amplifier detectors: Used in frequency range of 10 Hz to 100 KHz.

GENERAL EQUATION FOR BRIDGE BALANCE

Bridge is balanced when current through detector is
zero. This happens when potential difference between
potential b and d is zero.

i.e., when voltage drop from a to b equals voltage drop

from a to d both in magnitude and phase
i.e., E1 = E2
or I1Z1 = I2 Z2
E
Also at balance I1 = I3 =
Z1 + Z3
E
And I2 = I4 =
Z2 + Z4
Basic a.c. bridge network
GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.10
 Bridges and Potentiometer

Substituting values of I1 and I2 in above equation.

Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
In polar form
Z1 ∠θ1 . Z4 ∠θ4 = Z2 ∠θ2 . Z3 ∠θ3

or Z1 Z4 ∠θ1 + θ4 = Z2 Z3 ∠θ2 + θ3

i.e., Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3

and θ1 + θ4 = θ2 + θ3

The above two conditions must be satisfied for balancing the bridge.

MEASUREMENT OF SELF − INDUCTANCE

1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Maxwell's inductance Bridge

R3
At balance L1 = L2
R4

R3
R1 = (R2 + r2 )
R4

L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1

L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2
R2 = variable resistance in series with L 2
R3 ,R4 = known non−inductive resistances

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.11
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

2. Maxwell’s Inductance − Capacitance Bridge

Maxwell's inductance capacitance Bridge

Balance equation
⎛ R4 ⎞
(R1 + jωL1 ⎜ ⎟ = R2 R3
⎝ 1 + j ω C R
4 4 ⎠
Separating real and imaginary terms
R2 R3
R1 =
R4
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
where L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1
R2 ,R3 ,R4 = known non−inductive resistors
C4 = standard variable capacitor
Expression for Q−factor
ωL1
Q = = ωC4R4 (1)
R1
In Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge, L1 and R1 are independent of frequency.
Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge is used for the measurement of low
Q coils with Q varying in the range 1< Q < 10 .

3 Hay’s Bridge

Hay's Bridge
GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.12
 Bridges and Potentiometer

It is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. Here resistance is in series with standard

capacitor.
Balance equation
⎛ j ⎞
(R1 + jωL1) ⎜ R4 − ⎟ = R2 R3
⎝ ωC 4 ⎠
Separating real and imaginary terms
R 2 R 3 C4
L1 =
1+ ω2 C24 R24
ω2 R2 R3 R4 C24
R1 =
1+ ω2 C42 R24
ωL1 1
Q−factor = =
R1 ωC4R4
Hay’s bridge is suitable for coils with Q > 10

4. Anderson’s Bridge

Anderson's Bridge
It is also a modification of Maxwell’s inductance−capacitance bridge.
Balance equation
I1 = I3 and I2 = IC + I4
1
Now I1 R3 = IC × or IC = I1jωCR3
jωC
Also
I1 (r1 + R1 + jωL1) = I2R2 + ICr
⎛ 1 ⎞
and IC ⎜ r + ⎟ = (I2 − IC ) R4
⎝ jω C⎠
Substituting for IC in above 2 equations
I1 (r1 + R1 + jωL1) = I2R2 + I1jωCR3r
or I1 (r1 + R1 + jωL1 − jωCR3r) = I2R2 (i)
⎛ 1 ⎞
Also jωCR3 I1 ⎜ r + ⎟ = (I2 − I1jωCR3 )R4
⎝ jω C⎠

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.13
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Or I1 (jωCR3r + jωCR3R4 + R3 ) = I2 R4 (ii)

From Equation (i) and (ii)
⎛R R jωCR2R3r ⎞
I1 (r1 + R1 + jωL1 − jωCR3r) = I1 ⎜ 2 3 + + jωCR3R2 ⎟
⎝ R4 R4 ⎠
Separating real and imaginary terms
R2R3
R1 = − r1
R4
CR3
L1 = [r (R4 + R2 ) + R2 R4 ]
R4
Where
L1 = self inductance to be measured
R1 = resistance of self inductor
r1 = resistance connected in series with self inductor,
r , R2 , R3 ,R4 = known non−inductive resistances
C = fixed standard capacitor.

For low Q coils balance is obtained much easier for Anderson’s bridge as compared
to Maxwell’s bridge

5. Owen’s Bridge

Owen’s Bridge
Balance Equation
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
(R1 + jωL1) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ R2 + ⎟ R3
⎝ jω C 4 ⎠ ⎝ jωC2 ⎠
Separating real and imaginary terms
L1 = R 2 R 3 C 4
C4
R1 = R3
C2

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.14
 Bridges and Potentiometer

where
L1 = unknown self inductance of resistance R1
R2 = variable non−inductive resistance
R3 = fixed non−inductive resistance
C2 = variable standard capacitor
C4 = fixed standard capacitor.

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE
1. Desauty Bridge

De Sauty’s Bridge
Balance equation
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ R
⎜ ⎟ R4 = ⎜ ⎟ R3 or C1 = C2 4
⎝ jωC1 ⎠ ⎝ jωC2 ⎠ R3
where
C1 = Capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured
C2 = a standard capacitor
R 3 ,R4 = non−inductive resistors.
Desauty bridge is suitable only for loss−less capacitors like air capacitors

2. Modified Desauty Bridge

Modified De Sauty’s Bridge

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

To make measurements on imperfect capacitors (i.e., capacitors with dielectric loss),

this bridge is used.

Balance equation
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ R1 + r1 + ⎟ R4 = ⎜ R2 + r2 + ⎟ R3
⎝ jωC1 ⎠ ⎝ jωC2 ⎠

C1 R2 + r2 R4
or = =
C2 R1 + r1 R3

Dissipation factor for capacitors

D1 = tan δ1 = ωC1r1 and D2 = tan δ2 = ωC2r2
C1 R2 + r1
∵ = or C2r2 − C1r1 = C1R1 − C2R2
C2 R1 + r1
or ωC2r2 − ωC1r1 = ω(C1R1 − C2R2 )
or D2 − D1 = ω (C1R1 − C2 R2 )
C1 R4 C2R4
Also = ∴ C1 =
C2 R3 R3
⎛R R ⎞
∴ D2 − D1 = ωC2 ⎜ 1 4 − R2 ⎟
R
⎝ 3 ⎠
where R1, R2 = resistors connected in series with C1 and C2 respectively
r1, r2 = resistances representing the loss component of two capacitors

3. Schering Bridge

Low voltage Schering Bridge

Balance equation
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ R4 ⎞ 1
⎜ r1 + ⎟⎜ ⎟= R3
⎝ jωC1⎠ ⎝ 1+ jω C R
4 4 ⎠ jωC2

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.16
 Bridges and Potentiometer

Separating real and imaginary terms

C ⎛R ⎞
r1 = R3 4 C1 = C2 ⎜ 4 ⎟
C2 ⎝ R3 ⎠
where
C1 = capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined
r1 = a series resistance representing the loss in capacitor C1
C2 = a standard capacitor (loss − less capacitor)
R3 = a non−inductive resistance
C4 = a variable capacitor
R4 = a variable non−inductive resistance in parallel with C4 .
Dissipation factor D1 = tan δ = ωC1r1
R4 C
= ω C2 × R3 4 = ωC4 R4
R3 C4
Schering bridge is particularly suitable for measurement of small capacitances and
the bridge is then usually supplied from high frequency or high voltage source.

Measurement of Relative Permittivity with Schering Bridge

Schering bridge is very useful for measurement of relative permittivity of dielectric

materials. It involves the measurement of capacitance of small capacitor with the
specimen as dielectric.

The capacitor with specimen as dielectric is formed by using either parallel plate or a
concentric cylinder configuration for the electrodes guard circuit are used to make the
plate area definite.

Many different techniques can be used of which two are discussed

1. When electrodes and specimen have a close contact
In this case relative permittivity is calculated from measured value of capacitance
For parallel plate capacitor
Cs d
∈r = (2)
∈o A
where
Cs = measured value of capacitance with specimen as dielectric
d = spacing between electrodes
A = effective area of electrodes
∈o = permittivity of free space

2. When electrodes and specimen do not have a close contact.

This method uses a pair of solid electrodes (one with a guard ring) between which
the specimen (thinner than the space between electrodes) is slipped. After
capacitance is measured, specimen is removed and the spacing is then readjusted
to give same capacitance.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

Electrode

x
t

Electrode

The relative permittivity a of the specimen is measured from the thickness of specimen
and the alteration in electrode spacing.
Let C = capacitance with specimen between electrodes
A = area of electrodes
d = thickness of specimen
t = gap between specimen and electrode
x = reduction in separation between the two measurements
Let CS = capacitance of specimen
Co = capacitance due to space between specimen and electrode
C = effective capacitance of CS and CO in series
CS CO (∈ ∈ A / d) (∈o A / t)
C = = r o
CS + CO (∈r ∈o A / d) + (∈o A / t)
∈r ∈o A
=
∈r t + d
When specimen is removed and the spacing is readjusted to give the same capacitance,
the expression for capacitance is
∈o A ∈o A ∈∈ A
C = Hence = r o
t +d−x t +d−x ∈r t + d
d
or ∈r = (3)
d−x

MEASUREMENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

1. Mutual inductance measured as self inductance
If the terminals of two coils whose mutual inductance is to be measured are available
for series connection measurements can be done by any of the self − inductance
bridges.
For series additive connection

φ1 φ2

L1 L2
Le1 = L1 + L 2 + 2M (4)

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.18
 Bridges and Potentiometer

For series subtractive connections

φ1 φ2

L1 L2

Le2 = L1 + L 2 − 2M (5)
1
∴ M = (Le1 − Le2 )
4

2. Heavyside Mutual Inductance Bridge

Heaviside mutual inductance bridge

Balance Equation
I1 R3 = I2 R4

and
(I1 + I2 ) (jωM) + I1 (R1 + R3 + jωL1) = I2 (R2 + R4 + jωL 2 )

Substituting for I1 and separating real and imaginary terms.

⎛R ⎞ R
I2 ⎜ 4 + 1⎟ jωM + I2 4 (R1 + R3 + jωL1) = I2 (R2 + R4 + jωL 2 )
R
⎝ 3 ⎠ R3

R2R3
Thus R1 =
R4
L 2 − L1 R 4 / R 3 R 3 L 2 − R 4 L1
M = =
R 4 / R3 + 1 R3 + R4

If R3 = R4
L 2 − L1
M =
2
and R1 = R2

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.19
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

3. Campbell’s Bridge

M1 = unknown mutual inductance

L1 = self inductance of secondary of
mutual inductance M1
M2 = variable standard mutual inductance
L2 = self inductance of secondary of
mutual inductance M2
R1,R2 ,R3 ,R4 = non−inductive resistances

Two steps are required in balancing process :

1. Detector is connected between b and d

The requirement for balance is Camphell’s Bridge
L1 R1 R
= = 3
L2 R2 R4
The bridge may be balanced by adjustment of R3 (or R4 ) and R1 (or R2 )

2. Detector is connected between b′ and d′ keeping adjustment as in step 1 above,

the variable mutual inductance M2 is varied to get balance.
Then
M1 R3
=
M2 R4
R3
or M1 = M2
R4

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
Wien’s Bridge

Balance Equation
⎛ R1 ⎞ ⎛ j ⎞
⎜ ⎟ R4 = ⎜ R2 − ⎟ R3
⎝ 1 + jω C R
1 1⎠ ⎝ ω C 2 ⎠
Separating real and imaginary parts
R4 R2 C
= + 1
R3 R1 C2
1
and ωC1 R2 − =0
ωC2 R1
1 1
or ω = , f= Hz
R1 R2 C1 C2 2π R1R2 C1C2 Wien’s Bridge

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.20
 Bridges and Potentiometer

In most Wien’s bridges, components are to chosen such that

R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
R4 1
∴ =2 and f =
R3 2πRC
Wien’s bridge is suitable for measurement of frequencies in the range 100 Hz to 100 KHz
Wien bridge can be employed in harmonic distortion analyzer, where it is used as notch
filter, discriminating against one specific frequency.

WAGNER EARTHING DEVICE

Till now it was assumed that four arms of the bridges consisting of lumped impedances
do not interact with each other.
However stray capacitances exist between the various bridge elements and ground and
also between the bridge arm themselves. These stray capacitances shunt the bridge arm
and cause measurement errors, particularly at higher frequencies or when small
capacitors or large inductors are measured.
One method to control stray capacitance is by shielding the arms and connecting the
shields to ground.
One of the most widely used methods for eliminating the effects of stray capacitance in
the bridge circuit is Wagner Earthing Device or Wagner Ground Connections.

Wagner Earthing Device

Z1,Z2 ,Z3 ,Z4 = impedances of bridge arm

Z5 ,Z6 = variable impedance of wagner earth branch whose centre point is earthed

Z5 and Z6 must be capable of forming balance bridge with Z1 and Z3 or Z2 and Z4 .

C1, C2 , C3 , C4 = stray earth capacitance
= detector.

Wagner earth device eliminates the effect of stray capacitance.

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.21
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

LMR (LAST MINUTE RIVISION)

• Potentiometer makes use of balance or null condition and therefore no current flows
and hence no power is consumed in the circuit containing the unknown emf when the
instrument is balanced.
• Potentiometer is used for the calibration of voltmeter and ammeters.
• Internal thermo−electric emf in a potentiometer should be minimum and this is
achieved by manganin resistors.
• The potentiometer method of measurement of resistance is suitable for measurement
of low resistances.
• The basic requirement in voltmeter calibration process is a stable d.c. voltage supply
because any change in the supply voltage will cause a corresponding change in the
voltmeter calibration.
• In phantom loading pressure coil is supplied from required normal voltage and
current circuit from separate low voltage supply.
• Standardization of a.c potentiometer is done with the help of standard d.c. source
i.e., a standard cell or a zener source and a transfer instrument.

• Electronic oscillators have constant frequency, are easily adjustable and fairly
accurate with frequency range of 40 Hz to 125 kHz with power output of 7W.

• i.e., Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
and θ1 + θ4 = θ2 + θ 3

• The above two conditions must be satisfied for balancing the bridge.
• In Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge, L1 and R1 are independent of frequency.
• Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge is used for the measurement of low Q
coils with Q varying in the range 1< Q < 10 .

• Hay’s bridge is suitable for coils with Q > 10

• For low Q coils balance is obtained much easier for Anderson’s bridge as compared
to Maxwell’s bridge
• Desauty bridge is suitable only for loss−less capacitors like air capacitors
• Schering bridge is particularly suitable for measurement of small capacitances and
the bridge is then usually supplied from high frequency or high voltage source.
• Wien’s bridge is suitable for measurement of frequencies in the range 100 Hz to 100 KHz
• Wien bridge can be employed in harmonic distortion analyzer, where it is used as
notch filter, discriminating against one specific frequency.
• Wagner earth device eliminates the effect of stray capacitance.



GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.22
 Bridges and Potentiometer

ASSIGNMENTS − 1
1. The properties possessed by potentiometer wire is
(A) low resisting and high temperature coefficient
(B) high resisting and low temperature coefficient
(C) low resisting and low temperature coefficient
(D) high resisting and high temperature coefficient

2. The disadvantage of using d.c. potentiometer for the measurement of unknown

voltage for open circuit measurement is that
(A) voltages larger then the range of potentiometer are measured
(B) range reduction by a factor of 10 is employed in the potentiometer to
improve resolution
(C) primary circuit battery is charged
(D) standardisation has to be done again to compensative for drifts.

3. With the help of potentiometer the readings obtained are

(A) precise (B) accurate
(C) accurate and precise (D) accurate and direct reading

4. The standardization of a.c. potentiometer is done by

(A) using d.c. standard source and d’Arsonval galvanometer
(B) using a.c. standard sources and transfer instruments
(C) directly using a.c. standard voltage sources
(D) using d.c. standard sources and transfer instruments

5. A slide wire potentiometer has 10 wires of 2m each. With the help of a standard
voltage source of 1.045 V it is standardized by keeping the jockey at 104.5cm.
If the resistance of potentiometer wires is 2000Ω, then the value of working
current is
(A) 1mA (B) 10 mA
(C) 0.1 mA (D) 0.5 mA

6. The null detector most commonly used by ac bridge is:

(A) Ballistic galvanometer (B) Tachometer
(C) Vibration galvanometer (D) d’Arsonval galvanometer

7. The disadvantage of Maxwell bridge is

(A) Inductance cannot be measured over wide range
(B) Measurement is not independent of frequency
(C) Number of components is large
(D) None of the above

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Assign&Test /Pg.23
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

8. In an Anderson bridge, unknown inductance is measured in terms of

(A) known resistance
(B) known capacitance
(C) known resistance and capacitance
(D) known inductance and resistance

9. Inter electrode capacitance is measured by

(A) Wien’s (B) Owen’s
(C) Scherings (D) Desauty’s

10. The purpose of using Wagner’s Earth Devices in a.c bridges is for:
(A) eliminating the effect stray electrostatic fields
(B) shielding the bridge elements
(C) eliminating the effect of earth capacitances
(D) eliminating the effect of inter component capacitances



GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Assign&Test /Pg.24
 Bridges & Potentiometer

TEST PAPER − 1
Duration : 30 Min. Max. Marks : 25

Q1 to Q5 carry one mark each

1. Under null condition the power drawn potentiometer from the source is
(A) small (B) ideally zero
(C) very high (D) high

2. The transfer instrument employed in standardization of polar type potentiometer is

(A) electrostatic instrument (B) thermal instrument
(C) moving coil instrument (D) any of the above

3. The detectors used for the detection of null conditions in an a.c. bridge in the
frequency range 1 − 10 KHz is:
(A) Headphones and tuneable amplifiers
(B) Vibration galvanometers and tuneable amplifiers
(C) Headphones and vibration galvanometers
(D) All of the above

4. In Desauty bridge (unmodified form) balance is obtained when

(A) both the capacitors are perfect
(B) any one of the capacitor is perfect
(C) both the capacitors are imperfect
(D) none of the above

5 Which of the following are ratio arm bridges

(A) Maxwell Bridge (B) Hay Bridge
(C) Owen Bridge (D) All of the above

Q6 to Q15 carry two marks each

6. In dc potentiometer measurements, a second reading is often taken after

reversing the polarities of dc supply and unknown voltage and the average of two
readings is taken. This is done to eliminate the effects of
(A) stray thermal emf (B) erroneous stadardisation
(C) ripper in the dc supply (D) stray magnetic field

7. A simple d.c. potentiometer is to be standardized by keeping the slide wire

setting at 1.0194 V. If by mistake, the setting is at 1.0149V and the
standardization is made to obtain a source voltage of 1.0149 V, then the reading
of the potentiometer will be
(A) 1.0149 V (B) 1.0194 V
(1.0149 )2
(C) (1.0149 )2 V (D) V
1.0194

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Assign&Test /Pg.25
Vidyalankar : GATE – EE

8. The readings of polar type potentiometer are

V = 30.5 ∠35.6
I = 11.3 ∠24.7
Then reactance of the coil will be
(A) 2.65 Ω (B) −2.65Ω
(C) 0.51 Ω (D) 2.87Ω

9. A helipot is used for the measurement of linear displacement of 0.2m. It uses a

10 turn potentiometer with a total of 10000 twins of wire. Its resolution is

(A) 0.01 mm (B) 0.02 mm

(C) 0.1 mm (D) 0.2 mm

10. A slide wire is used for measurement of current in the circuit. The voltage drop
across standard resistor of 0.2Ω is balanced at 83 cm. Find the magnitude of
current if the standard cell emf of 1.53 V is balanced at 42cm.
(A) 19.43 A (B) 12.94 A
(C) 21.75A (D) 15.12 A

11. Match the following measuring instruments with their application:

(a) Schering bridge (i) Insulation resistance
(b) Anderson bridge (ii) Self inductance
(c) Megger (iii) Capacitance
(d) Campbell bridge (iv) Mutual inductance

(A) a − iii, b − ii, c − i, d − iv

(B) a − ii, b − iii, c − i, d − iv
(C) a − iii, b − i, c − iv, d − ii
(D) a − i, b − ii, c − iv, d − iii

12. The reading of voltmeter in the given bridge is

(A) 6V b
(B) 3.3V
(C) Zero
(D) 6.66V 30Ω 15Ω

a c
V

15Ω 30Ω

12V

GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Assign&Test /Pg.26
 Bridges & Potentiometer

13. In the ov bridge shown in Fig.

Z1 = 200∠60 , Z2 = 400 ∠ − 90 , Z3 = 300 ∠0 , Z4 = 400 ∠30 .
Then choose the correct statement:
(A) Bridge is balanced with given Z4
Z3
impedance values

(B) Bridge can be balanced

D
If Z4 = 600 ∠60

(C) Bridge can be balanced if Z1 Z2

Z3 = 400 ∠0

(D) Bridge cannot be

balanced with given
configuration

14. In Maxwell’s capacitance bridge for calculating unknown inductance, the various
values at balance are
R2 = 300 Ω, R3 = 700 Ω, R4 = 1500 Ω, C4 = 0.8 μF Calculate R1, L1, Q −factor if
frequency is 1100 Hz

(A) 240 Ω, 0.12H, 3.14

(B) 140 Ω, 0.168 H, 8.29
(C) 140 Ω, 0.12H, 5.92
(D) 240 Ω, 0.36 H, 8.29

15. A sheet of bakelite 5.5 mm thick is tested at 50 Hz between electrodes 0.1m in

diameter. The values of various parameters of Schering bridge of balance
condition are
C2 = 100PF, R4 = 1500 / π Ω, C4 = 0.6 μF, R3 = 250 Ω
Then the relative permittivity of sheet will be
(A) 15.1 (B) 12.3
(C) 11.4 (D) 13.6



GATE/EE/SLP/Module_2/Ch.1_Assign&Test /Pg.27