System Programming : Unit 3

Linkers and Loaders

Prof. Reshma Pise

Comp Engg. Dept
Vishwakarma University

Reshma Pise 1
Course Outcomes :
On completion of the course, the students will be able to –
1. Discriminate among different System software and their functionalities.

2. Design language translators like Macro processor and Assembler.

3. Develop approaches and methods for implementing compiler, linker and loader.
4. Use LEX tool for lexical analysis.
5. Interpret the techniques of implementing utility software.

Reshma Pise 2
 Outline
Linkers: Relocation and linking concepts, static and dynamic linker, Subroutine
linkages.
Self-relocating programs.
Loaders: Loader schemes: Compile and Go, General loader scheme, Absolute loaders,
Relocating loaders, Direct linking loaders, Overlay Structure.
 Dynamic linking, API compatibility, Dynamically Linked libraries.

Reshma Pise 3
 Schematic of Program Execution:

Performed By:
Translator of L:
1. Translation of program
2. Linking of program with other programs and libraries,
external symbols needed for its execution.
Linker:
3. Relocation of the program to execute from the
specific memory area allocated to it.
Loader: 4. Loading of the program in the memory for the
purpose of execution.

Reshma Pise 4
 Schematic of Program Execution:

Data

Binary
Translator Linker Loader
Program

Results
Source
Program
Object Binary
Module Programs (.exe)

Reshma Pise 5
 Terminologies:

• Translation Time (or Translated) Address: Address assigned by the translator.

As specified in ORG / START or default value
• Linked Address: Address assigned by the linker.
• Load Time (or Load) Address: Address assigned by the loader.
• Translated Origin: Address of the origin assumed by the translator. This is the
address specified by the programmer in an ORIGIN statement.
• Linked Origin: Address of the origin assigned by the linker while producing a
binary program.
• Load Origin: Address of the origin assigned by the loader while loading the program
for execution.

Reshma Pise 6
 Change of origin

• The linked and load origins may differ from translated origin.
• Reason?
– Same set of translated addresses may have been used by different object
modules of the program. This results in conflict during memory allocation.
– OS may require that a program should execute from specific area of memory.
This may require change in its origin, thus changing execution start address
and symbol addresses.
• Thus, origin may be changed by linker and loader.

Reshma Pise 7
 Example: P
Statement Address Code
START 500

ENTRY TOTAL The translated

origin
EXTRN MAX, ALPHA
READ A 500) + 09 0 140
LOOP 501)
. The translated time address of LOOP
.
MOVER AREG, ALPHA 518) + 04 1 000
BC ANY, MAX 519) + 06 6 000
.
.
BC LT, LOOP 538) + 06 1 101
STOP 539) + 00 0 000
A DS 1 540)
TOTAL DS 1 541)
END
Reshma Pise 8
RELOCATION & LINKING CONCEPTS

(a) Program Relocation

– Performing Relocation

(b) Linking
– EXTERN & ENTRY statement
– Resolving external references
– Binary Programs

(c) Object Module

Reshma Pise 9
Program Relocation:
Address Sensitive Program:
• AA – Set of Absolute Addresses, may be instruction address or data address.

• A Address sensitive program contains:

1. Address Sensitive Instruction: an instruction which contains address ai Є AA.
2. Address Constant: a data word which contains an address ai Є AA.
• Address Sensitive Program P can execute correctly only if the start address of
the memory area allocated to it is the same as its translated origin.
Start Address = Translation Address
• Thus, to execute correctly from any memory area, address used in each address
sensitive instruction of P must be ‘corrected’.

Reshma Pise 10
 Program Relocation : Definition

• The process of modifying the address used in the address sensitive instructions
such that the program can execute correctly from the designated area of memory.
• Linker performs relocation if
– Linked Origin ≠ Translated Origin
• Loader performs relocation if
– Load Origin ≠ Linked Origin
• In general: Linker always performs relocation, whereas some loaders do not.
• Absolute loaders do not perform relocation, then
– Load Origin = Linked Origin
– Thus, Load Origin and Linked Origin are used interchangeably.

Reshma Pise 11
 Performing Relocation:

• Relocation Factor (RF) of P is defined as

relocation_factorp = l_originp – t_originp
RF can +ve or –ve or 0.
• Consider a statement in which symbol is an operand
t symb = t_originp + d symb where, dsymb = offset
tsymb = translation time address lsymb = link time address
t_originp = translation origin of Program ‘ P ‘
After program P is relocated to linked origin l_originp, we have
l symb = l_originp + d symb
l symb = t origin + relocation_factorp + d symb

= t symb + relocation_factorp

Reshma Pise 12
 IRR: Instruction Requiring Relocation

A set of instructions that require relocation in program p.

• Steps:
– Calculate Relocation Factor(RF)
– Add it to Translation Time Address(es) for every instruction which is member of
IRR.
Eg : In previous program, if linked origin is 300
relocation factor = 300 - 100 = 200
IRR contains translation addresses 100 & 138
(instruction : read A) Operand addresses 140 and 101
Operand address is changed to 140 + 200 = 340 and
101 + 200 = 301.

Reshma Pise 13
 Linking:

Application Program consists of a Set of Program units.

• A program unit Pi interacts with another program unit Pj using instructions &
addresses of Pj.
• For this it must have:
– Public Definition: a symbol pub_symb defined in a program unit which
may be referenced in other program.
– External Reference: a reference to a symbol ext_symb which is not defined in
program unit containing the reference.

Reshma Pise 14
 EXTRN & ENTRY statements:

• The ENTRY statement lists the public definition of program unit.

– i.e it list those symbols defined in program unit which may be referenced in
other program units.
• The EXTRN statement list the symbols to which external references are made
in the program unit.
• Refer Example in slide Number 8
– TOTAL is ENTRY statement. (public defination)
– MAX and ALPHA are EXTRN statements (external reference)
– Assembler don’t know address of EXTRN symb and so it puts 0’s in address field of
instruction wherever these symbols are used.

– It is required to resolve external references.

Reshma Pise 15
 Resolving External Reference:

• Every external reference should be bound to correct link time address , before
application program executes.
• Who will do this binding?
– Here comes Linker into the picture.
• Linking:
Linking is the process of binding an external reference to correct link time address.
• External reference is said to be unresolved until linking is performed and resolved
once linking is completed.

Reshma Pise 16
Example: Linking
Consider Program Unit Q linked with P (Slide No. 8)

Statement Address Code

START 200
ENTRY ALPHA
--
ALPHA DS 25 231) + 00 0 025
END

ALPHA is external reference in example ‘P’ which is linked with above given unit.

Reshma Pise 17
 Binary Programs:

Machine language program comprising of set of program units SP such that for all Pi Є SP,
– Pi relocated at linked origin.
– Linking is performed for each external reference in Pi.
Linker Command:
Linker <link origin> <object module names> [, <execution start address> ]
 Linker converts object module into-> the set of program units (SP) into-> a binary
program.

 If link address = load address, loader simply loads binary program into appropriate
memory area for execution.

Reshma Pise 18
 Object Module:

• Object Module(OM) contains all the information necessary to relocate and link the program with other
programs.
• OM consist of four components:
1. Header: Contains translated origin, size and execution start address of P.
2. Program: Contains machine language program corresponding P.
3. Relocation Table: (RELOCTAB) describing IRRp (Instruction Requiring Relocation). Eachentry
contains field: ‘Translated Address’ - of address sensitive instruction.
4. Linking Table: (LINKTAB) contains information concerning public definition and external reference.
Has three fields:
• Symbol: symbolic name
• Type: PD/EXT i.e public definition or external reference
• Translated Address: If PD, address of first memory word allocated. If EXT, address of memory
word containing reference of symbol.
Reshma Pise 19
 Example:
• For previously given assembly program, object module contains following information:
Consider first statement START 500
1. Header :Translated Origin: 500, Size:42, Execution Start Add= 500
2. Machine Language Instructions
3. Relocation table: 500
538

ALPHA EXT 518

4. Linking table:
MAX EXT 519
TOTAL PD 541

LOOP is not here as it is not PD.

Reshma Pise 20
DESIGN OF LINKER:

• What influence relocation requirement of a program?

Addressing Structure of Computer System.
• How to reduce relocation requirement of a program?
By using segmented addressing structure.
• JUMP avoids use of absolute address, hence instruction is no more address
sensitive. Thus, no relocation is needed.

• Effective Operand Address would be calculated considering starting

address as 2000 would be
<CS> + 0196 = 2196 (which is corrected address)

Reshma Pise 21
Linking in Segmented Addressing
Sr. No Statement Offset
0001 DATA_HERE SEGMENT
0002 ABC DW 25 0000
0003 B DW ? 0002
. .
. .
0012 SAMPLE SEGMENT
0013 SEGMENT CS:SAMPLE,
DS:DATA_HERE
0014 MOV AX, DATA_HERE 0000
0015 MOV DS, AX 0003
0016 JMP A 0005
0017 MOV AL,B 0008
.
0027 A MOV AX,BX 0196
.
0043 SAMPLE ENDS
0044 END

Reshma Pise 22
 Linking in Segmented Addressing
• Code written in assembly language for Intel 8088.
• ASSUME statements declares segment register CS and DS for memory addressing.
So, all memory addressing is performed using suitable displacement of their contents.
• Translation time address of A is 0196.

• In statement 16, reference of A due to JMP statement makes displacement of 196 from the content of CS register.
Hence avoids usage of absolute addressing. Thus, instruction is not address sensitive.
Displacement ->avoids usage of absolute address->not address sensitive
instruction.
• As DS is loaded with execution time address of DATA_HERE, reference to B would be automatically relocated to correct
address.
• Thus, Use of segment register reduces relocation requirement but doesn’t eliminate it.
• Inter Segment Calls & Jumps are handled in similar way.

• Relocation is more involved in case of intra segment jumps assembled in FAR format.
• Linker computes both:
– Segment Base Address
– Offset of External Symbol
• No reduction in linking requirements.

Reshma Pise 23
 Quiz
1.) _______ is the process binding a program with other programs and
libraries, external symbols.

2.) Output of Linker is _________.

3) Relocation corrects the address used in _______ instructions such that the
program can execute correctly from the designated area of memory.

4) Relocation may be performed by : a) Linker b.) Loader c.) Both

5) Relocation Factor (RF) of P is defined as________________

Reshma Pise 24
 Quiz : Solution
1.) _____is the process binding a program with other programs and libraries,
external symbols. Linking

2.) Output of Linker is _________ . Binary Program

3) Relocation corrects the address used in _______ instructions such that the
program can execute correctly from the designated area of memory.
address sensitive instructions
4) Relocation may be performed by a) Linker b.) Loader c.) Both c) Both

5) Relocation Factor (RF) of P is defined as _____________

relocation_factorp = l_originp – t_originp

Reshma Pise 25
 Quiz
6.) ________ indicates a symbol defined in a program unit which may be
referenced in other program.
7.) The ______ statement lists the public definitions of program unit whereas
______ statement lists the symbols to which external references are made
in the program unit.
8.) The four components of OM are : ________

9.) The three fields of LINKTAB are ________, _________, _____

10.) ______ table contains translated address of address sensitive

instructions.
11) ____________ Reduces relocation requirement of a program

Reshma Pise 26
 Quiz : Solution
6.) ________ indicates a symbol defined in a program unit which may be
referenced in other program. Public Definition
7.) The ______ statement lists the public definitions of program unit whereas
______ statement lists the symbols to which external references are made
in the program unit. ENTRY, EXTRN
8.) The four components of OM are : ________
Header, Program, RELOCTAB and LINKTAB
9.) The three fields of LINKTAB are Symbol, type and Translated address

10.) RELOCTAB table contains translated address of address sensitive

instructions.
11) Segmented addressing Reduces relocation requirement of a program

Reshma Pise 27
 Assignments
1) Briefly explain the concept of relocation with an example.
2) Briefly explain the concept of Linking with an example.
3) Describe how the relocation is performed.
4) Elaborate the four components in Object Module.
5) Explain the purpose and structure of LINKTAB and RELOCTAB.
6) Justify :
Segmented addressing reduces the relocation requirements with
valid explanation and example.

Reshma Pise 28
Relocation Algorithm:
1. program_linked_origin:=<link origin> from Linker command;
2. For each object module
(a) t_origin := translated origin of object module; OM_size := size of object module;

(b) relocation_factor := program_linked_origin – t_origin;

(c) Read the machine language program in work_area;

(d) Read RELOCTAB of object module.

(e) For each entry in RELOCTAB

(i) Translated_addr := address in RELOCTAB entry;
(ii) address_in_work_area := address of work_area + translated_address – t_origin;
(iii) Add relocation_factor to the operand address in the word with the address ‘address_in_work_area’.

(f) program_linked_origin := program_linked_origin + OM_Size.

Reshma Pise 29
 Example:

• Let address of work_area = 300.

• While relocating OM, relocation factor = 400.
• For the first RELOCTAB entry, address_in_work_area = 300+500-500=300.
• This word contains the instruction for READ A.
• It is reallocated by adding 400 to operand address in it.
• For the second RELOCTAB entry, address_in_work_area=300+538-500=338.
• The instruction in this word is similarly relocated by adding 400 to the operand
address in it.

Reshma Pise 30
 Linking Requirements:

Linker processes all object modules being linked & builds a table of all public
definition & load time address.
Name Table (NTAB)

– Symbol: Symbol Name for external reference or object module.

– Linked Address: For public definition contains linked_address.

For object module contains linked_origin.
• Most information in NTAB is derived from LINKTAB entries with type=PD.

Reshma Pise 31
Algorithm: Program Linking
1. program_linked_origin := <link origin> from linker command.
2. For each object module
(a) t_origin := translated origin of object module
OM_size := size of the object module;
(b) Relocation_factor := program_linked_origin – t_origin.
(c) Read the machine language program in work_area.
(d) Read LINKTAB of the object module.
(e) For each LINKTAB entry with type = PD ,
name:= symbol;
linked_address := translated_address + relocation_factor;
Enter(name,linked_address) in NTAB.
(f) Enter (object module name, program_linked_origin) in NTAB.
(g) program_linked_origin := program_linked_origin + OM_size;

Reshma Pise 32
Algorithm: Program Linking
3. For each object module mentioned in Linker Command,
(a) t_origin := translated origin of the object module.
program_linked_origin = linked_address from NTAB
(a) For each LINKTAB entry with type=EXT
(i) address_in_work_area := address of work_area +
program_linked_origin –
<link_origin> + translated address – t_origin
(ii) Search symbol in NTAB and copy its linked address. Add the linked address
to the operand address in the word with the address address_in_work_area.

Reshma Pise 33
 Example: Program Linking
• Linker Command be :
> Linker 900 , P , Q
NTAB : Name Table Global
linked_origin=900, NTAB contains information shown in fig:
e.g: work_area = 300. Symbol Linked
Address
• When LINKTAB entry of alpha is processed during linking,
P 900
address_in_work_area := 300 + 900 - 900 + 518 – 500.
TOTAL 941
= 318.
Q 942
Linked address of ALPHA is 973, is copied from NTAB entry of
ALPHA 973
ALPHA and added to word in address 318.
300+900-900+519-500
= 319

Reshma Pise 34
 SELF RELOCATING PROGRAMS

• Types of programs:
– Non Re-locatable Programs
– Re-locatable Programs
– Self Re-locating Programs
1. Non Re-locatable Programs:
– It cannot be executed in any memory area other than area starting on its
translated origin.
– Has address sensitive programs.
– Lack information concerning address sensitive instruction
– Eg. Hand coded machine language program.

Reshma Pise 35
 SELF RELOCATING PROGRAMS
2. Re-locatable Programs:
– It can be processed to relocate it into desired data area of memory.
– Eg: Object Module.
3. Self Relocating Programs:
– It can perform relocation of its own address sensitive instruction.
– Consist of:
• A table of Information (for address sensitive prg)
• Relocating logic
– Self re-locating program can execute in any area of memory.
– As load address is different for each execution, good for time sharing
systems.

Reshma Pise 36
A LINKER FOR MS DOS
A linker for Intel 8088/80/x86 processors which resembles LINK of MS DOS.

Object Module Format:

– An Intel 8088 object module is a sequence of object records.
– Each object record describes specific aspect of program in object module.
– There are 5 categories comprising total 14 types of object records.
– Five Categories:
1. Binary image(ie code generated by translator)
2. External reference
3. Public definition
4. Debugging information (e.g. Line numbers)
5. Miscellaneous information (e.g. comments)

– Each object record contains variable length information and may refer to contents of previous
object records.

Reshma Pise 37
Types of Object Records (order is important)

THEADR 80 Translator header record ( First record)

LNAMES 96 List of names record
SEGDEF 98 Segment definition record
EXTDEF 8C External names definition record.
PUBDEF 90 Public names definition record
LEDATA A0 Enumerated data (binary image)
FIXUPP 9C Fix up record
MODEND 8A Module end record

Reshma Pise 38
Object Record Formats

THEADR record: Translator Header Record

80H Length T-module Check Sum
name
– Typically derived by the translator from the source file name.
– This file name is used by the linker to report errors.
– An assembly programmer can specify the module name in the NAME directive.

Reshma Pise 39
Object Record Formats:
LNAMES: record lists the names for use by SEGDEF records.
96H Length Name List Check Sum

SEGDEF: Designates a segment name

Attributes (1-4) Segment Length
98H Length Name Index (1) Check Sum
(2)

– Uses index into in to the list

– Attribute field indicates whether segment is re-locatable or
absolute.
– Also indicates the manner in which it is combined with other segments.
– Also indicates alignment requirement of its base address.
– Attribute field also contains origin specification for absolute segment.

Reshma Pise 40
 Object Record Formats:
EXTDEF record : The EXTDEF record contains a list of external references used by module

External
8CH Length Check Sum
Reference List

PUBDEF record : Contains list of public names declared.

90H Length base (2-4) Name offset (2) … Check Sum

– Base specification identifies the segment.

– (name, offset) pair defines one public name.

Reshma Pise 41
 Object Record Formats:
FIXUPP record : Contains information necessary for performing Relocation and Linking
Frame Target Target Check
9CH Length Locat (1) Fix dat (2) …
datam (1) datum(1) offset(2) Sum

– Designates external symbol name Loc Meaning:

Code
– Uses index to the list
0 Low order byte to be fixed
• Locat contains offset of fix up location in previous
LEDATA. 1 Offset is to be fixed
• Frame datum refers to SEGDEF record. 2 Segment is to be fixed
• Target datum and target offset specify relocation 3 Pointer (segment offset) to be fixed.
and linking information. Codes in Fixdat field
Target Datum contains segment index or an external Fix dat Meaning:
index. 0 Segment index & displacement
• Target offset contains offset from name indicated in target 2 External index &target displcmt
datum. 4 Segment index (without offset)
• Fix data field indicates manner in which target datum 6 External index (without offset)
and fix datum fields are to be interpreted.

Reshma Pise 42
Object Record Formats:
MODEND record : Indicates the end of module

Start addr (5) Check sum

8AH Length Type (1)

– Type field indicates whether it is the main program.

– Has 2 components: (a) segment, (b) offset

LEDATA records: Contains binary image of code generated by language translator.

– Segment index identifies the segment to which the code belongs.
– Offset specifies the location of the code within the segment.

Segment Data Check

AOH Length data
Index (1-2) Offset (2) sum

Reshma Pise 43
Example MS DOS Assembly Program and Object Module

Source : “ Systems programming “, D M Dhamdhere. McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Limited

Reshma Pise 44
 Algorithm for First Pass of LINKER
1. program_linked_origin := <load origin>;
2. Repeat step 3 for each object module to be linked.
3. Select an object module and process its object records.
(a) If an LNAMES record, enter the names in NAMELIST.
(b) If a SEGDEF record
(i) i := name index; segment_name := NAMELIST[i];
segment_addr := start address in attributes;
(ii) If an absolute segment, enter (segment_name, segment_addr) in NTAB.
(iii) If the segment is re-locatable and cannot be combined with
other segments
- Align the address containing in program_linked_origin on the next word or
paragraph as indicated in attribute list.
- Enter (segment_name,program_linked_origin) in NTAB.
- program_linked_origin := program_linked_ origin + segment length;
Reshma Pise 45
 Algorithm for First Pass of LINKER Contd.
(c) For each PUBDEF record

(i) i := base; segment_name := NAMELIST[i];

(ii)segment_addr := load address of segment_name in NTAB;
(iii) sym_addr := segment_addr + offset;
(iv) Enter (symbol,sym_addr) in NTAB.

In first pass, linker only processes the object records relevant for building NTAB.
Second pass performs relocation and linking.

Reshma Pise 46
Algorithm for Second Pass of LINKER
1. list_of_object_module := object modules named in LINKER command;
2. Repeat step 3 until list_of_object_modules is empty.
3. Select an object module and process its object records.
(a) if an LNAMES record
Enter the names in NAMELIST.
(b) if a SEGDEF record
i := name index; segment_name := NAMELIST[i];
(c) if an EXTDEF record
(i) external_name := name from EXTDEF record;
(ii) if external_name is not found in NTAB, then
- Locate object module in library which contains external_name as a segment or public definition.
- Add name of object module to list_of_object_module.
- Perform first pass of LINKER, for new object module.
(iii) Enter (external_name, load address from NTAB) in EXTTAB.

Reshma Pise 47
Algorithm for Second Pass of LINKER (Contd.)
(d) if an LEDATA record
(i) i:= segment index; d := data offset;
(ii) program_linked_origin := SEGTAB[i].linked address;
(iii) address_in_work_area := address of work_area + program_linked_origin - <load origin> + d ;
(iv) move data from LEDATA into the memory area starting at the address address_in_work_area.

(e) if a FIXUPP record, for each FIXUPP specification

(i) f := offset from locat field;
(ii) fix_up_address := address of work_area + program_linked_origin - <load origin> + f;
(iii) Perform required fix up using a load address from SEGTAB or EXTTAB and the value of code in locat
and fix dat.

(f) if MODEND record

if start address is specified, compute the corresponding load address and record it in the executable
file being generated.

Reshma Pise 48
Linking for OVERLAYS:

Definition: (Overlay) An overlay is a part of a program ( or software package) which has the same
load origin as some other parts of the program.
Overlays are used to reduce the main memory requirement of a program.

Overlay structured programs consist of:

1. A permanently resident portion, called the root.
2. A set of overlays.

Execution of overlay structured program:

1. root is loaded in the memory
2. other overlays are loaded as and when needed.
3. loading of an overlay overwrites a previously loaded overlay with the same load origin.

Reshma Pise 49
Linking for OVERLAYS:

This reduces the memory requirement of the program.

Hence, facilitate execution of those programs who’s size exceeds memory size.
How to design overlay structure?
– By identifying mutually exclusive module.
– Modules that do not call each other.
– These modules do not need to reside simultaneously in the memory.
– Hence keep those modules in different overlays with same load origin.

Reshma Pise 50
Linking for OVERLAYS:

• Execution of an overlay structured program:

– Overlay manager module is included in executable file which is responsible for
overlay load as and when required.
– Interrupt producing instruction replaces all cross overlay boundary calls.
• Changes in Linker Algorithm?
– Assignment of load address to segments after execution of root.
– Mutually exclusive modules are assigned same
program_load_origin.
– Also algorithm has to identify inter-overlay call and determine
destination overlay.

Reshma Pise 51
 Quiz
1.) Linker processes all object modules being linked & builds ______ table.

2.) Information in NTAB is derived from LINKTAB entries with type _____ .

3.) LNAMES record lists the names of _______ .

4.)_______ object records contain information necessary for performing

Relocation and Linking.

5.) _______ program can perform relocation of its own address sensitive
instruction.

6.) _____structure is built by identifying mutually exclusive modules.

Reshma Pise 52
 Quiz : Solution
1.) Linker processes all object modules being linked & builds Name Table
(NTAB) table.
2.) Information in NTAB is derived from LINKTAB entries with type __ PD.

3.) LNAMES record lists the names of _______ Segments

4.)_______ object records contain information necessary for performing

Relocation and Linking. FIXUPP

5.) _______ program can perform relocation of its own address sensitive
instruction. Self Relocating Program

6.) _____structure is built by identifying mutually exclusive modules. Overlay

Reshma Pise 53
 Assignments
1) Write an algorithm for Relocation.
2) Explain the purpose of NTAB in Linking? How is it built?
3) Write an algorithm to perform Linking on a set of Oms.
4) What is Overlay structure? What is the advantage of it?.
5) Explain the format and purpose of following Object record formats:
a.) FIXUPP b) LEDATA c) EXTDEF d) SEGDEF
6) Write an algorithm for Pass 1 and Pass 2 MSDOS Linker.

7) Explain the purpose behind building EXTTAB. Why is it required?

Reshma Pise 54
 Loaders

A loader is a system
program that performs
the loading of object
program into memory.
Loaders also support
relocation & linking.
Others have a separate
linker and loader,

Reshma Pise 55
Loader : Basic Functions

Allocation: allocate space in memory for the programs

Linking: Resolve symbolic references between object files
◦ combines two or more separate object programs
◦ supplies the information needed to allow references between them
Relocation: Adjust all address dependent locations, such as address constants,
to correspond to the allocated space
◦ modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different
from the location originally specified
Loading: Physically place the machine instructions and data into memory

Reshma Pise 56
Loaders
Two Types:
1. Absolute Loader:
– Can load only programs with load origin = linked origin.
– This is inconvenient when load address differ from the one specified for execution.
2. Relocating loader:
– Performs relocation while loading a program for execution.
– Permits program to be executed in different parts of memory.
MS DOS support 2 object program forms:
1. .COM:
– Contains non re-locatable object program.
– Absolute loaders are invoked.
2. .EXE:
– Contains re-locatable object program.
– Relocating loaders are invoked.
At the end of loading, execution starts.

Reshma Pise 57
Loader Schemes

Compile and Go

◦ The assembler runs in one part of memory

◦ Place the assembled machine instructions and data, as they are assembled,
directly into their assigned memory locations
◦ When the assembly is completed, the assembler causes a transfer to the
starting instruction of the program.

Reshma Pise 58
Absolute Loader

Reshma Pise 59
Disadvantages

A portion of memory is wasted because the memory occupied by the assembler

is unavailable to the object program.
It is necessary to re-translate (assemble) the user's program file every time it is
run.
It is very difficult to handle multiple segments, especially if the source programs
are in different.

Reshma Pise 60
 Disadvantages
If changes were made to MAIN that increased its length to more than 300 bytes
◦ the end of MAIN (at 100 + 300 = 400) would overlap the start of SQRT (at 400)
◦ It would then be necessary to assign SQRT to a new location
◦ changing its START and re-assembling it?!
Furthermore, it would also be necessarily to modify all other subroutines that referred
to the address of SQRT.

Reshma Pise 61
Disadvantages of Absolute Loaders

Actual load address must be specified

The programmer must be careful not to assign two subroutines to the same or
overlapping locations
Difficult to use subroutine libraries (scientific and mathematical) efficiently
◦ important to be able to select and load exactly those routines that are needed

Reshma Pise 62
Disadvantages of Absolute Loaders

Allocation - by programmer
Linking - by programmer
Relocation - None required-loaded where assembler assigned
Loading - by loader

Reshma Pise 63
A Simple Bootstrap Loader

Automatically executed when the computer is first turned on

Loads the first program to be run: usually the O/S itself begins at address 0 in memory
◦ loads the O/S starting at address 80
◦ After all code is loaded, bootstrap jumps to address 80.
◦ No H or E records, no control information

Reshma Pise 64
General Loader Scheme

 Linking
 Relocation
 Loading

Reshma Pise 65
Dynamic Loading
If the total amount of memory required by all subroutines exceeds the amount
available
The module loader loads the only the procedures as they are needed.
◦ Allocating an overlay structure
The Flipper or overlay supervisor is the portion of the loader that actually
intercepts the "calls" and loads the necessary procedure.

Reshma Pise 66
Example
Suppose a program consisting of five subprograms (A{20k},B{20k}, C{30k},
D{10k}, and E{20k}) that require 100K bytes of core.
◦ Subprogram A only calls B, D and E;
◦ subprogram B only calls C and E;
◦ subprogram D only calls E
◦ subprogram C and E do not call any other routines
Note that procedures B and D are never in used the same time; neither are C
and E.

Reshma Pise 67
Longest Path Overlay Structure
100k Vs. 70k needed

A B C
20K 20K 30K

D E
10K 20K

Reshma Pise 68
Dynamic Linking
The loading and linking of external references are postponed until execution
time.
The loader loads only the main program
If the main program should
◦ execute a branch to an external address,
◦ reference an external variable
The loader is called
◦ Only then has the segment containing the external reference loaded.

Reshma Pise 69
 Quiz (Practice)
1) A linker is given object module for a set of programs that were compiled
separately. What information need not be included in an object
module?______________.
2) The process of assigning load addresses to the various parts of the program
and adjusting the code and data in the program to reflect the assigned
addresses is called _______.
3) Object modules generated by assembler that contains unresolved external
references are resolved for two or more object module by a/an__________.
4) Object code is the output of ______.
5) In an absolute loading scheme, which loader function is accomplished by a
loader ________.
6) A system program that combines the separately compiled modules of a
program into a form suitable for execution ?_________.
Reshma Pise 70
 Quiz (Practice)
7) Load address for the first word of the program is called?________.
8) Consider a program with a linked origin of 5000. Let the memory area
allocated to it have the start address of 70000. Which among the following will
be the value to be loaded in relocation register?__________
9) Resolution of externally defined symbols is performed by___________.
10)Static memory allocation is typically performed during _____________.
11)Dynamic memory allocation is typically performed during ________ .
12)Linking is process of binding________.
13)If load origin is not equal to linked origin then relocation is performed
by___________.
14)If linked origin is not equal to translated address then relocation is
performed by____________.
15)Binder performs the functions of______________.
Reshma Pise 71
 Assignments

1. Explain Loaders. What are functions of loader?

2. List out the function performed by relocating loaders?.
3. What is an absolute loader? State its advantages.
4. Discuss the functions and design of an absolute loader.
5. What is dynamic linking? Explain. What is the advantage of Dynamic
Linking?
6. Explain with neat block diagram the role of loader & linker.
7. What are Dynamic Link Libraries? State the 3 advantages of DLL.
8. Explain with a neat diagram the concept of Overlay.

Reshma Pise 72
 Assignments

9. What steps are involved in execution of a program? Explain

translated, linked and load time addresses.
10.Discuss linking for overlays in detail.
11.Discuss about ‘self-relocating programs’.
12. Compare Linker and Loader.
13.What is meant by bootstrap loader?
14. Define automatic library search.
15.Describe the structure and purpose of following tables in Linker.
I) RELOCTAB II) LINKTAB

Reshma Pise 73
Reference

“ Systems programming “, D M Dhamdhere. McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Limited,

Reshma Pise 74
THANK YOU

Reshma Pise 75