CMY 3709

Quantitative research in Criminology

Oct/nov 2024

Student name : Michael Mziwamandla

Student surname: Maphumulo

Module code: CMY3709

Mylife email address: [email protected]

Student number: 14179032

Question 1

1.2. Exploratory Studies

Objective: Explore a research question or phenomenon without preconceived notions.

Goal: Gain insight, identify patterns, and generate hypotheses.

Characteristics:

1. Open-ended research questions.

2. No clear hypotheses.
3. Qualitative or mixed-methods approach.

4. Small sample size.

5. Flexible research design.

Examples

1. Investigating the impact of social media on mental health.

2. Studying the experiences of refugees in a new country.

3. Examining the effects of climate change on local ecosystems.

Exploratory studies are research investigations aimed at exploring a phenomenon,

issue, or problem without preconceived notions or hypotheses. The primary objective is
to gain insight, identify patterns, and generate hypotheses for further investigation.
Characteristics of Exploratory Studies

1. Open-ended research questions.

2. No clear hypotheses.
3. Qualitative or mixed-methods approach.

4. Small sample size.

5. Flexible research design.

6. Emphasis on discovery and exploration.

Goals of Exploratory Studies

1. Identify research gaps.

2. Develop research questions.

3. Generate hypotheses.

4. Understand complex phenomena.

5. Inform future research.

Types of Exploratory Studies

1. Pilot studies.

2. Case studies.
3. Ethnographic studies.

4. Phenomenological studies.

5. Grounded theory studies.

Methods Used in Exploratory Studies

1. Interviews.

2. Focus groups.

3. Observations.

4. Content analysis.

5. Survey research.

Advantages of Exploratory Studies

1. Flexibility in research design.

2. In-depth understanding of phenomena.

3. Identification of new research questions.

4. Generation of hypotheses.

5. Contribution to theory development.

Limitations of Exploratory Studies

1. Small sample size.

2. Lack of generalizability.

3. Subjective interpretation.
4. Limited statistical analysis.

5. Risk of researcher bias.

Examples of Exploratory Studies

1. Investigating the experiences of refugees in a new country.

2. Studying the impact of social media on mental health.

3. Examining the effects of climate change on local ecosystems.

4. Understanding the cultural significance of traditional practices.

5. Exploring the relationship between education and socioeconomic status.

Exploratory studies are essential in the research process, providing valuable insights
and laying the groundwork for future investigations. By embracing flexibility and
openness, exploratory studies can uncover new knowledge and inform evidence-based
decision-making.

Explanatory Studies

Objective: Explain the relationship between variables or test hypotheses.

Goal: Confirm or refute hypotheses, predict outcomes.

Characteristics:

1. Specific research questions and hypotheses.

2. Quantitative or mixed-methods approach.

3. Large sample size.

4. Structured research design.

5. Statistical analysis.

Examples
1. Investigating the relationship between exercise and weight loss.

2. Studying the effect of medication on disease symptoms.

3. Examining the impact of socioeconomic status on academic achievement.

Key differences

1. Purpose: Exploratory (discovery) vs. Explanatory (confirmation).

2. Research questions: Open-ended (exploratory) vs. Specific (explanatory).

3. Methodology: Qualitative (exploratory) vs. Quantitative (explanatory).

4. Sample size: Small (exploratory) vs. Large (explanatory).

Explanatory studies aim to explain the relationship between variables, test hypotheses,
and identify causal mechanisms. These studies seek to confirm or refute hypotheses,
predict outcomes, and provide insights into underlying phenomena.

Characteristics of Explanatory Studies

1. Specific research questions and hypotheses.

2. Quantitative or mixed-methods approach.

3. Large sample size.

4. Structured research design.

5. Statistical analysis.

Goals of Explanatory Studies

1. Test hypotheses.

2. Identify causal relationships.

3. Explain phenomena.

4. Predict outcomes.

5. Inform decision-making.

Types of Explanatory Studies

1. Experimental studies.
2. Quasi-experimental studies.

3. Survey research.

4. Correlational studies.

5. Longitudinal studies.
Methods Used in Explanatory Studies

1. Regression analysis.

2. Factor analysis.

3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA).

4. Statistical modelling.

5. Path analysis.

Advantages of Explanatory Studies

1. Provides evidence for causal relationships.

2. Tests hypotheses.

3. Predicts outcomes.

4. Inform decision-making.

5. Contributes to theory development.

Limitations of Explanatory Studies

1. Requires large sample size.

2. Assumes prior knowledge.

3. May overlook contextual factors.

4. Risk of measurement error.

5. Limited generalizability.

Examples of Explanatory Studies

1. Investigating the effect of exercise on weight loss.

2. Studying the relationship between socioeconomic status and academic achievement.

3. Examining the impact of medication on disease symptoms.

4. Analysing the effect of climate change on crop yields.

5. Understanding the relationship between social media usage and mental health.

Steps in Conducting Explanatory Studies

1. Formulate research questions and hypotheses.

2. Conduct literature review.

3. Design study methodology.

4. Collect and analyse data.

5. Interpret results.

6. Draw conclusions.

Explanatory studies provide valuable insights into the relationships between variables,
enabling researchers to test hypotheses, predict outcomes, and inform decision-making.
By employing rigorous methodology and statistical analysis, explanatory studies
contribute to the development of theories and evidence-based practices.

Explanatory Study Design

1. Experimental Design

2. Quasi-Experimental Design

3. Survey Design

4. Correlational Design

5. Longitudinal Design

Explanatory Study Methods

1. Regression Analysis

2. Factor Analysis

3. ANOVA
4. Statistical Modelling

5. Path Analysis

Explanatory Study Applications

1. Social Sciences

2. Healthcare

3. Education

4. Business

5. Environmental Science
Relationship between Exploratory and Explanatory Studies

1. Exploratory studies inform explanatory studies.

2. Explanatory studies validate or refute exploratory findings.

3. Both types of studies contribute to the research process.

By understanding the distinction between exploratory and explanatory studies,

researchers can design studies that effectively address their research questions and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their field.

Question 2

2.1. Questionnaires are a popular data collection technique in research. They involve a
set of questions designed to gather information from respondents. Questionnaires can
be administered in various formats, such as paper-based, online, or face-to-face
interviews. They are useful for collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, making
them versatile for different types of research.

Aspects to Consider When Formulating Questions

Clarity: Ensure that questions are clear and easy to understand to avoid confusion
among respondents. Use simple language and avoid jargon or ambiguous terms.

Relevance: Each question should be directly related to the research objectives.

Irrelevant questions can lead to data that does not contribute to the study's goals.

Unbiased: Formulate questions in an unbiased manner to avoid leading or loaded

questions that may influence respondents' answers.
Sensitivity: Consider the sensitivity of certain topics and formulate questions in a
respectful and non-intrusive manner to ensure respondents' comfort.

Response Options: Provide appropriate response options, such as multiple-choice,

Likert scales, or open-ended questions, to capture the necessary data effectively.
Ensure that the response options cover all possible answers without overlapping or
leaving gaps.

2.4. The nominal level of measurement is relevant to criminological research

because it's a way to categorize data into distinct groups without using numerical values
or rank order. This can be useful for identifying the most common response in a set of
data, such as whether more students in a sample have been victims of crime than those
who haven't. The nominal level of measurement is the simplest of the four levels of
measurement, also known as scales of measurement. The other three levels are
ordinal, interval, and ratio. The level of measurement used in research is important
because it determines the type of statistical analysis that can be performed, and the
conclusions that can be drawn from the data.

The nominal level of measurement is a fundamental concept in research, particularly in

criminology, where categorization and classification are crucial.
Definition

Nominal level of measurement involves assigning labels or categories to variables

without implying any quantitative value or order.

Examples in Criminology

1. Crime types (e.g., homicide, theft, burglary)

2. Offender characteristics ( gender, ethnicity, age)

3. Crime locations ( urban, rural, public spaces)

4. Victim-offender relationships ( stranger, acquaintance, family)

5. Sentence types ( probation, imprisonment, fines)

Relevance to Criminological Research

1. Categorization Nominal measurement enables researchers to categorize and analyse

crime patterns, offender characteristics, and victim experiences.

2. Frequency analysis Researchers can calculate frequencies and proportions of

different crime types, offender characteristics, or victim experiences.
3. Comparative analysis Nominal measurement allows for comparisons between
categories ( crime rates between urban and rural areas).

4. Predictive modelling Nominal variables can be used as predictors in statistical models

to identify relationships between variables.

5. Policy development Nominal measurement informs policy decisions by identifying

specific crime types, offender groups, or victim populations requiring targeted
interventions.

Research Applications

1. Crime mapping and spatial analysis

2. Offender profiling and risk assessment

3. Victimology studies

4. Crime trend analysis

5. Program evaluation (effectiveness of rehabilitation programs)

Statistical Techniques

1. Frequency distributions

2. Cross-tabulations

3. Chi-square analysis
4. Logistic regression (with nominal predictors)

5. Cluster analysis

By recognizing the importance of nominal measurement in criminological research,

researchers can effectively categorize, analyse, and understand complex crime
phenomena, informing evidence-based policy and practice.

Questions 3

3.2.

1. Are theoretical points clear?

2. Does the research make a definite contribution to the field?

3. Was the empirical research conducted thoroughly?

4. Are theory and empirical work integrated?

5. Was enough relevant literature consulted?

6. Is the layout of the manuscript clear and logical?

7. Were the correct data analysis techniques applied?

8. Were the data interpreted correctly?

9. Is the use of language clear and appropriate?

10. Are the headings, tables and figures in accordance with the requirements of
this journal?
3.3.

1. Benefit basic knowledge

2. Improve research techniques

3. Benefit research participants

4. Benefit researchers

5. Enhance practical outcomes