What is Database

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the data
efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students and faculty
etc.

Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database. For
example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in
different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing data
in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also
maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that defines
the organization of data in the database.
o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data in
the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by
applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data integrity,
enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring performance and
recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Characteristics of DBMS
o It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the information.
o It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
o DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
o It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of failure.
o It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
o It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
o It is used to provide security of data.
o It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the requirements of the user.
Advantages of DBMS
o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data among
multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of data
from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS
o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large
memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of the
organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged due to
electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever.

What is Data?
Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of forms like text,
numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or electronic memory, etc.

Word 'Data' is originated from the word 'datum' that means 'single piece of information.' It is plural of
the word datum.

In computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement and
processing. Data is interchangeable.

What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and managed.

You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find relevant
information.

Database handlers create a database in such a way that only one set of software program provides
access of data to all the users.
The main purpose of the database is to operate a large amount of information by storing, retrieving,
and managing data.

There are many dynamic websites on the World Wide Web nowadays which are handled through
databases. For example, a model that checks the availability of rooms in a hotel. It is an example of a
dynamic website that uses a database.

There are many databases available like MySQL, Sybase, Oracle, MongoDB, Informix, PostgreSQL,
SQL Server, etc.

Modern databases are managed by the database management system (DBMS).

SQL or Structured Query Language is used to operate on the data stored in a database. SQL depends
on relational algebra and tuple relational calculus.

A cylindrical structure is used to display the image of a database.

Evolution of Databases
The database has completed more than 50 years of journey of its evolution from flat-file system to
relational and objects relational systems. It has gone through several generations.

The Evolution

File-Based

1968 was the year when File-Based database were introduced. In file-based databases, data was
maintained in a flat file. Though files have many advantages, there are several limitations.

One of the major advantages is that the file system has various access methods, e.g., sequential,
indexed, and random.

It requires extensive programming in a third-generation language such as COBOL, BASIC.

Hierarchical Data Model

1968-1980 was the era of the Hierarchical Database. Prominent hierarchical database model was
IBM's first DBMS. It was called IMS (Information Management System).

In this model, files are related in a parent/child manner.

Below diagram represents Hierarchical Data Model. Small circle represents objects.
Like file system, this model also had some limitations like complex implementation, lack structural
independence, can't easily handle a many-many relationship, etc.

Network data model

Charles Bachman developed the first DBMS at Honeywell called Integrated Data Store (IDS). It was
developed in the early 1960s, but it was standardized in 1971 by the CODASYL group (Conference on
Data Systems Languages).

In this model, files are related as owners and members, like to the common network model.

Network data model identified the following components:

o Network schema (Database organization)

o Sub-schema (views of database per user)
o Data management language (procedural)

This model also had some limitations like system complexity and difficult to design and maintain.

Relational Database

1970 - Present: It is the era of Relational Database and Database Management. In 1970, the
relational model was proposed by E.F. Codd.

Relational database model has two main terminologies called instance and schema.

The instance is a table with rows or columns

Schema specifies the structure like name of the relation, type of each column and name.

This model uses some mathematical concept like set theory and predicate logic.

The first internet database application had been created in 1995.

During the era of the relational database, many more models had introduced like object-oriented
model, object-relational model, etc.

Cloud database
Cloud database facilitates you to store, manage, and retrieve their structured, unstructured data via a
cloud platform. This data is accessible over the Internet. Cloud databases are also called a database
as service (DBaaS) because they are offered as a managed service.

Some best cloud options are:

o AWS (Amazon Web Services)

o Snowflake Computing
o Oracle Database Cloud Services
o Microsoft SQL server
o Google cloud spanner

Advantages of cloud database

Lower costs

Generally, company provider does not have to invest in databases. It can maintain and support one or
more data centers.

Automated

Cloud databases are enriched with a variety of automated processes such as recovery, failover, and
auto-scaling.

Increased accessibility

You can access your cloud-based database from any location, anytime. All you need is just an internet
connection.

NoSQL Database
A NoSQL database is an approach to design such databases that can accommodate a wide variety of
data models. NoSQL stands for "not only SQL." It is an alternative to traditional relational databases in
which data is placed in tables, and data schema is perfectly designed before the database is built.

NoSQL databases are useful for a large set of distributed data.

Some examples of NoSQL database system with their category are:

 o MongoDB, CouchDB, Cloudant (Document-based)
o Memcached, Redis, Coherence (key-value store)
o HBase, Big Table, Accumulo (Tabular)

Advantage of NoSQL
High Scalability

NoSQL can handle an extensive amount of data because of scalability. If the data grows, NoSQL
database scale it to handle that data in an efficient manner.

High Availability

NoSQL supports auto replication. Auto replication makes it highly available because, in case of any
failure, data replicates itself to the previous consistent state.

Disadvantage of NoSQL
Open source

NoSQL is an open-source database, so there is no reliable standard for NoSQL yet.

Management challenge

Data management in NoSQL is much more complicated than relational databases. It is very
challenging to install and even more hectic to manage daily.

GUI is not available

GUI tools for NoSQL database are not easily available in the market.

Backup

Backup is a great weak point for NoSQL databases. Some databases, like MongoDB, have no powerful
approaches for data backup.

The Object-Oriented Databases

The object-oriented databases contain data in the form of object and classes. Objects are the real-
world entity, and types are the collection of objects. An object-oriented database is a combination of
relational model features with objects oriented principles. It is an alternative implementation to that of
the relational model.

Object-oriented databases hold the rules of object-oriented programming. An object-oriented

database management system is a hybrid application.

The object-oriented database model contains the following properties.

Object-oriented programming properties

 o Objects
o Classes
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Encapsulation

Relational database properties

o Atomicity
o Consistency
o Integrity
o Durability
o Concurrency
o Query processing

Graph Databases
A graph database is a NoSQL database. It is a graphical representation of data. It contains nodes and
edges. A node represents an entity, and each edge represents a relationship between two edges.
Every node in a graph database represents a unique identifier.

Graph databases are beneficial for searching the relationship between data because they highlight the
relationship between relevant data.

Graph databases are very useful when the database contains a complex relationship and dynamic
schema.

It is mostly used in supply chain management, identifying the source of IP telephony.

DBMS (Data Base Management System)

Database management System is software which is used to store and retrieve the database. For
example, Oracle, MySQL, etc.; these are some popular DBMS tools.

o DBMS provides the interface to perform the various operations like creation, deletion,
modification, etc.
o DBMS allows the user to create their databases as per their requirement.
 o DBMS accepts the request from the application and provides specific data through the
operating system.
o DBMS contains the group of programs which acts according to the user instruction.
o It provides security to the database.

Advantage of DBMS
Controls redundancy

It stores all the data in a single database file, so it can control data redundancy.

Data sharing

An authorized user can share the data among multiple users.

Backup

It providesBackup and recovery subsystem. This recovery system creates automatic data from system
failure and restores data if required.

Multiple user interfaces

It provides a different type of user interfaces like GUI, application interfaces.

Disadvantage of DBMS
Size

It occupies large disk space and large memory to run efficiently.

Cost

DBMS requires a high-speed data processor and larger memory to run DBMS software, so it is costly.

Complexity

DBMS creates additional complexity and requirements.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System)

The word RDBMS is termed as 'Relational Database Management System.' It is represented as a table
that contains rows and column.

RDBMS is based on the Relational model; it was introduced by E. F. Codd.

A relational database contains the following components:

o Table
o Record/ Tuple
 o Field/Column name /Attribute
o Instance
o Schema
o Keys

An RDBMS is a tabular DBMS that maintains the security, integrity, accuracy, and consistency of the
data.

DBMS vs. File System

There are following differences between DBMS and File system:

DBMS File System

DBMS is a collection of data. In DBMS, the user File system is a collection of data. In this system, the user has
is not required to write the procedures. write the procedures for managing the database.

DBMS gives an abstract view of data that hides File system provides the detail of the data representation and s
the details. of data.

DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism, File system doesn't have a crash mechanism, i.e., if the system
i.e., DBMS protects the user from the system crashes while entering some data, then the content of the file w
failure.

DBMS provides a good protection mechanism. It is very difficult to protect a file under the file system.

DBMS contains a wide variety of sophisticated File system can't efficiently store and retrieve the data.
techniques to store and retrieve the data.

DBMS takes care of Concurrent access of data In the File system, concurrent access has many problems like
using some form of locking. redirecting the file while other deleting some information or up
some information.

Advantages of file-oriented system

Advantage and Disadvantages of File-oriented system are given below
Advantage of File-oriented system:
1. Backup:

 It is possible to take faster and automatic back-up of database stored in files of computer-based systems.
 computer systems provide functionalities to serve this purpose.it is also possible to develop specific
application program for this purpose.

2. Compactness:

 It is possible to store data compactly.

3. Data Retrieval:

 Computer-based systems provide enhanced data retrieval techniques to retrieve data stored in files in easy
and efficient way.

4. Editing:

 It is easy to edit any information stored in computers in form of files.

 Specific application programs or editing software can be used for this purpose.

5. Remote Access:

 In computer-based systems,it is possible to access data remotely.

 so,to access data it is not necessary for a user to remain present at location where these data are kept.

6. Sharing:

 Data stored in files of computer-based systems ca be shared among multiple users at a same time.

Disadvantage of File-oriented system:

1. Data Redundancy:

 It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different files.this leads to data redundancy
results in memory wastage.

2. Data Inconsistency:

 Because of data redundancy,it is possible that data may not be in consistent state.

3. Difficulty in Accessing Data:

 Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file processing system.

4. Limited Data Sharing:

 Data are scattered in various files.also different files may have different formats and these files may be
stored in different folders may be of different departments.
 So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share data among different applications.

5. Integrity Problems:

 Data integrity means that the data contained in the database in both correct and consistent.for this purpose
the data stored in database must satisfy correct and constraints.

6. Atomicity Problems:

 Any operation on database must be atomic.

 this means, it must happen in its entirely or not at all.

7. Concurrent Access Anomalies:

 Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously.this is for the sake of better performance and faster
response.

8. Security Problems:

 Database should be accessible to users in limited way.

 Each user should be allowed to access data concerning his requirements only.

DBMS Architecture
o The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server architecture is used to
deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database servers and other components that
are connected with networks.
o The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are connected via
the network.
o DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their
request done.

Types of DBMS Architecture

Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically, database architecture is
of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier architecture.

1-Tier Architecture
o In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the user can
directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
o Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide a handy
tool for end users.
o The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where programmers
can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.

2-Tier Architecture
o The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture, applications
on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server side. For this
interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used.
o The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
o The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query processing and
transaction management.
o To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a connection with the
server side.
Fig: 2-tier Architecture

3-Tier Architecture
o The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In this
architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
o The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which further
communicates with the database system.
o End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the application server. The
database also has no idea about any other user beyond the application.
o The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.

Fig: 3-tier Architecture

Three schema Architecture
o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level
architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down into three
different categories.

The three-schema architecture is as follows:

In the above diagram:

o It shows the DBMS architecture.

o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various database levels of
architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from external level
to conceptual schema.
 o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the conceptual to internal
level.

1. Internal Level
o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure of the
database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

2. Conceptual Level
o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level. Conceptual
level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also describes
what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure are
hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. External Level
o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested and
hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

DBMS – Three Level Architecture

In the previous tutorial we have seen the DBMS architecture – one-tier, two-tier and three-
tier. In this guide, we will discuss the three level DBMS architecture in detail.

DBMS Three Level Architecture Diagram

This architecture has three levels:
1. External level
2. Conceptual level
3. Internal level

1. External level
It is also called view level. The reason this level is called “view” is because several users
can view their desired data from this level which is internally fetched from database with the
help of conceptual and internal level mapping.

The user doesn’t need to know the database schema details such as data structure, table
definition etc. user is only concerned about data which is what returned back to the view
level after it has been fetched from database (present at the internal level).

External level is the “top level” of the Three Level DBMS Architecture.

2. Conceptual level
It is also called logical level. The whole design of the database such as relationship among
data, schema of data etc. are described in this level.
Database constraints and security are also implemented in this level of architecture. This
level is maintained by DBA (database administrator).

3. Internal level
This level is also known as physical level. This level describes how the data is actually
stored in the storage devices. This level is also responsible for allocating space to the data.
This is the lowest level of the architecture.

Physical dbms architecture, Database Management System

PHYSICAL DBMS ARCHITECTURE

The physical architecture defines the software components used to process and enter data, and how
these software components are related and interconnected. Though it is not possible to simplify the
component structure of a DBMS, it is possible to recognize a number of key functions which are similar to
most database management systems. The components that normally execute these functions are shown
in Figure , which depicts the physical architecture of a typical DBMS.

Figure: DBMS Structure

Based on many functions, the database system may be partitioned into the following modules. Some
functions (for example, file systems) may be given by the operating system.

Components And Overall Structure of DBMS.

Components of DBMS are broadly classified as follows :

1. Query Processor :

(a)DMLCompiler
(b)EmbeddedDMLpre-compiler
(c)DDLInterpreter
(d) Query Evaluation Engine

2. Storage Manager :

(a)AuthorizationandIntegrityManager
(b)TransactionManager
(c)FileManager
(d) Buffer Manager

3. Data Structure :

(a)DataFiles
(b)DataDictionary
(c)Indices
(d) Statistical Data

1. Query Processor Components :

• DML Pre-compiler : It translates DML statements in a query language into low level instructions that query
evaluation engine understands. It also attempts to transform user's request into an equivalent but more efficient form.
• Embedded DML Pre-compiler : It converts DML statements embedded in an application program to normal
procedure calls in the host language. The Pre-compiler must interact with the DML compiler to generate the
appropriate code.
• DDL Interpreter : It interprets the DDL statements and records them in a set of tables containing meta data or
data dictionary.
• Query Evaluation Engine : It executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler.

2. Storage Manager Components :

They provide the interface between the low-level data stored in the database and application programs and queries
submittedtothesystem.
• Authorization and Integrity Manager: It tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints checks the authority of
users to access data.
• Transaction Manager : It ensures that the database remains in a consistent state despite the system failures and
that concurrent transaction execution proceeds without conflicting.
• File Manager : It manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures used to represent
information stored on disk.
• Buffer Manager : It is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory and deciding what data
to cache in memory.

3. Data Structures :
Following data structures are required as a part of the physical system implementation.
• Data Files : It stores the database.
• Data Dictionary : It stores meta data (data about data) about the structure of the database.
• Indices : Provide fast access to data items that hold particular values.
• Statistical Data : It stores statistical information about the data in the database. This information is used by query
processor to select efficient ways to execute query.
 Responsibilities of DBA
Following are the responsibilities of Database Administrator (DBA),
 Installation, configuration and upgradation of databases like Microsoft SQL/ MySQL/
Oracle Server Software.
 Evaluating the features of various databases.
 Establishing and maintaining sound backup and recovery policies and procedures.
 Taking care of database design and implementation.
 Implementing and maintaining the database security.
 Database tuning, application tunning and performance monitoring.
 Maintaining documentation and standards.
 DBA does some technical trouble shooting and consultation to development teams.
Following skill set is required to be a successful Database Administrator,
 Problem Management
 Incident Management
 Chain Management
 Capacity Planning

Types of DBA
Following are the types of DBA,
1. Administrative DBA
2. Development DBA
3. Architect
4. Data Warehouse DBA
5. OLAP DBA

1. Administrative DBA
 Administrative DBA maintains the work on the server and keeps it running.
 Administrative DBA is mostly concerned with backups, security, replication etc.
2. Development DBA
 Development DBA builds queries, stored procedures etc. which mostly meet
business needs.
 Development DBA is equivalent to a programmer.
3. Architect
 Architect builds table, design schema, foreign keys, primary keys etc. which meets
the business needs.
4. Data Warehouse DBA
 Data Warehouse DBA is responsible for merging the data from multiple sources into
a data warehouse.
5. OLAP DBA
 OLAP DBA builds multi-dimensional cubes for decision support or OLAP systems.
 The primary language in SQL Server is MDX.
Data Dictionary in DBMS
Data Dictionary consists of database metadata. It has records about objects in the
database.
What Data Dictionary consists of
Data Dictionary consists of the following information:

 Name of the tables in the database

  Constraints of a table i.e. keys, relationships, etc.
 Columns of the tables that related to each other
 Owner of the table
 Last accessed information of the object
 Last updated information of the object

An example of Data Dictionary can be personal details of a student:

Example
<StudentPersonalDetails>
Student_ID Student_Name Student_Address Student_City

The following is the data dictionary for the above fields:

Types of Data Dictionary

Here are the two types of data dictionary:
Active Data Dictionary
The DBMS software manages the active data dictionary automatically. The modification
is an automatic task and most RDBMS has active data dictionary. It is also known as
integrated data dictionary.
Passive Data Dictionary
Managed by the users and is modified manually when the database structure change.
Also known as non-integrated data dictionary.

DBMS - Indexing
We know that data is stored in the form of records. Every record has a key field, which
helps it to be recognized uniquely.
Indexing is a data structure technique to efficiently retrieve records from the database
files based on some attributes on which the indexing has been done. Indexing in
database systems is similar to what we see in books.
Indexing is defined based on its indexing attributes. Indexing can be of the following
types −
  Primary Index − Primary index is defined on an ordered data file. The data file is ordered on a key
field. The key field is generally the primary key of the relation.

 Secondary Index − Secondary index may be generated from a field which is a candidate key and has
a unique value in every record, or a non-key with duplicate values.
 Clustering Index − Clustering index is defined on an ordered data file. The data file is ordered on a
non-key field.

Ordered Indexing is of two types −

 Dense Index
 Sparse Index

Dense Index
In dense index, there is an index record for every search key value in the database.
This makes searching faster but requires more space to store index records itself.
Index records contain search key value and a pointer to the actual record on the disk.

Sparse Index
In sparse index, index records are not created for every search key. An index record
here contains a search key and an actual pointer to the data on the disk. To search a
record, we first proceed by index record and reach at the actual location of the data. If
the data we are looking for is not where we directly reach by following the index, then
the system starts sequential search until the desired data is found.

Multilevel Index
Index records comprise search-key values and data pointers. Multilevel index is stored
on the disk along with the actual database files. As the size of the database grows, so
does the size of the indices. There is an immense need to keep the index records in
the main memory so as to speed up the search operations. If single-level index is used,
then a large size index cannot be kept in memory which leads to multiple disk
accesses.

Multi-level Index helps in breaking down the index into several smaller indices in order
to make the outermost level so small that it can be saved in a single disk block, which
can easily be accommodated anywhere in the main memory.

B Tree
+

A B tree is a balanced binary search tree that follows a multi-level index format. The
+

leaf nodes of a B tree denote actual data pointers. B tree ensures that all leaf nodes
+ +

remain at the same height, thus balanced. Additionally, the leaf nodes are linked using
a link list; therefore, a B tree can support random access as well as sequential access.
+

Structure of B+ Tree
Every leaf node is at equal distance from the root node. A B tree is of the
+

order n where n is fixed for every B tree.

+
Relational Model concept
Relational model can represent as a table with columns and rows. Each row is known as a tuple. Each
table of the column has a name or attribute.

Domain: It contains a set of atomic values that an attribute can take.

Attribute: It contains the name of a column in a particular table. Each attribute Ai must have a
domain, dom(Ai)

Relational instance: In the relational database system, the relational instance is represented by a
finite set of tuples. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples.

Relational schema: A relational schema contains the name of the relation and name of all columns
or attributes.

Relational key: In the relational key, each row has one or more attributes. It can identify the row in
the relation uniquely.

Example: STUDENT Relation

NAME ROLL_NO PHONE_NO ADDRESS AGE

Ram 14795 7305758992 Noida 24

Shyam 12839 9026288936 Delhi 35

Laxman 33289 8583287182 Gurugram 20

Mahesh 27857 7086819134 Ghaziabad 27

Ganesh 17282 9028 9i3988 Delhi 40

o In the given table, NAME, ROLL_NO, PHONE_NO, ADDRESS, and AGE are the attributes.
o The instance of schema STUDENT has 5 tuples.
o t3 = <Laxman, 33289, 8583287182, Gurugram, 20>

Properties of Relations
o Name of the relation is distinct from all other relations.
o Each relation cell contains exactly one atomic (single) value
o Each attribute contains a distinct name
o Attribute domain has no significance
o tuple has no duplicate value
o Order of tuple can have a different sequence
DBMS Database Models
A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and defines how data
will be stored, accessed and updated in a database management system. While the Relational
Model is the most widely used database model, there are other models too:

 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Entity-relationship Model
 Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root, to which all the
other data is linked. The heirarchy starts from the Root data, and expands like a tree, adding
child nodes to the parent nodes.
In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book, recipes etc.
In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many
relationship between two different types of data, for example, one department can have many
courses, many professors and of-course many students.
Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised more like a
graph, and are allowed to have more than one parent node.
In this database model data is more related as more relationships are established in this
database model. Also, as the data is more related, hence accessing the data is also easier and
fast. This database model was used to map many-to-many data relationships.
This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model was introduced.

Entity-relationship Model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity and its
characteristics into attributes.
Different entities are related using relationships.
E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it easier for
different stakeholders to understand.
This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in relational
model(explained below).
Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will be
an entity with attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is generally complex, it can be
another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and there will be a relationship
between them.
Relationships can also be of different types. To learn about E-R Diagrams in details, click on the
link.
ER model
o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This model is
used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.
o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and easy to
design view of data.
o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an entity-relationship
diagram.

For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student will be an entity
with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be another entity with attributes like
city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a relationship between them.

Component of ER Diagram
1. Entity:
An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be represented
as rectangles.

Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department etc. can be taken
as an entity.

a. Weak Entity
An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't contain any
key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

2. Attribute
The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent an attribute.

For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.

a. Key Attribute

The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It represents a primary
key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined.
b. Composite Attribute

An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute. The composite
attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected with an ellipse.

c. Multivalued Attribute

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a multivalued attribute.
The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.
d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It can be
represented by a dashed ellipse.

For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another attribute like Date
of birth.

3. Relationship/Cardinality
A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus is used to
represent the relationship.
Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known as one to one
relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the right
associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the only specific
scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an entity on the right
associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many students.
d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the
right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many employees.

What are Keys?

A DBMS key is an attribute or set of an attribute which helps you to identify a
row(tuple) in a relation(table). They allow you to find the relation between two tables.
Keys help you uniquely identify a row in a table by a combination of one or more
columns in that table.

Example:

Employee ID FirstName LastName

11 Andrew Johnson

22 Tom Wood

33 Alex Hale
In the above-given example, employee ID is a primary key because it uniquely
identifies an employee record. In this table, no other employee can have the same
employee ID.

Why we need a Key?

Here, are reasons for using Keys in the DBMS system.

 Keys help you to identify any row of data in a table. In a real-world application, a table could
contain thousands of records. Moreover, the records could be duplicated. Keys ensure that you
can uniquely identify a table record despite these challenges.
 Allows you to establish a relationship between and identify the relation between tables
 Help you to enforce identity and integrity in the relationship.

Various Keys in Database Management System

DBMS has folwing seven types of Keys each have their different functionality:

 Super Key
 Primary Key
 Candidate Key
 Alternate Key
 Foreign Key
 Compound Key
 Composite Key
 Surrogate Key

What is the Super key?

A superkey is a group of single or multiple keys which identifies rows in a table. A Super key
may have additional attributes that are not needed for unique identification.

Example:

EmpSSN EmpNum Empname

9812345098 AB05 Shown

9876512345 AB06 Roslyn

199937890 AB07 James

In the above-given example, EmpSSN and EmpNum name are superkeys.

What is a Primary Key?

PRIMARY KEY is a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify every row in
that table. The Primary Key can't be a duplicate meaning the same value can't appear more than
once in the table. A table cannot have more than one primary key.

Rules for defining Primary key:

 Two rows can't have the same primary key value
 It must for every row to have a primary key value.
 The primary key field cannot be null.
 The value in a primary key column can never be modified or updated if any foreign key refers to
that primary key.

Example:

In the following example, <code>StudID</code> is a Primary Key.

StudID Roll No First Name LastName Email

1 11 Tom Price [email protected]

2 12 Nick Wright [email protected]

3 13 Dana Natan [email protected]

What is the Alternate key?

ALTERNATE KEYS is a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify every
row in that table. A table can have multiple choices for a primary key but only one can be set as
the primary key. All the keys which are not primary key are called an Alternate Key.

Example:

In this table, StudID, Roll No, Email are qualified to become a primary key. But since StudID is
the primary key, Roll No, Email becomes the alternative key.
StudID Roll No First Name LastName Email

1 11 Tom Price [email protected]

2 12 Nick Wright [email protected]

3 13 Dana Natan [email protected]

What is a Candidate Key?

CANDIDATE KEY is a set of attributes that uniquely identify tuples in a table.
Candidate Key is a super key with no repeated attributes. The Primary key should
be selected from the candidate keys. Every table must have at least a single
candidate key. A table can have multiple candidate keys but only a single primary
key.

Properties of Candidate key:

 It must contain unique values

 Candidate key may have multiple attributes
 Must not contain null values
 It should contain minimum fields to ensure uniqueness
 Uniquely identify each record in a table

Example: In the given table Stud ID, Roll No, and email are candidate keys which
help us to uniquely identify the student record in the table.

StudID Roll No First Name LastName Email

1 11 Tom Price [email protected]

2 12 Nick Wright [email protected]

3 13 Dana Natan [email protected]

What is the Foreign key?
FOREIGN KEY is a column that creates a relationship between two tables. The
purpose of Foreign keys is to maintain data integrity and allow navigation between
two different instances of an entity. It acts as a cross-reference between two tables
as it references the primary key of another table.

Example:

DeptCode DeptName

001 Science

002 English

005 Computer

Teacher ID Fname Lname

B002 David Warner

B017 Sara Joseph

B009 Mike Brunton

In this example, we have two table, teach and department in a school. However,
there is no way to see which search work in which department.

In this table, adding the foreign key in Deptcode to the Teacher name, we can create
a relationship between the two tables.

Teacher ID DeptCode Fname Lname

B002 002 David Warner

B017 002 Sara Joseph

B009 001 Mike Brunton

This concept is also known as Referential Integrity.

What is the Compound key?

COMPOUND KEY has two or more attributes that allow you to uniquely recognize a
specific record. It is possible that each column may not be unique by itself within the
database. However, when combined with the other column or columns the
combination of composite keys become unique. The purpose of compound key is to
uniquely identify each record in the table.

Example:

OrderNo PorductID Product Name Quantity

B005 JAP102459 Mouse 5

B005 DKT321573 USB 10

B005 OMG446789 LCD Monitor 20

B004 DKT321573 USB 15

B002 OMG446789 Laser Printer 3

In this example, OrderNo and ProductID can't be a primary key as it does not
uniquely identify a record. However, a compound key of Order ID and Product ID
could be used as it uniquely identified each record.

What is the Composite key?

COMPOSITE KEY is a combination of two or more columns that uniquely identify
rows in a table. The combination of columns guarantees uniqueness, though
individually uniqueness is not guaranteed. Hence, they are combined to uniquely
identify records in a table.

The difference between compound and the composite key is that any part of the
compound key can be a foreign key, but the composite key may or maybe not a part
of the foreign key.

What is a Surrogate Key?

An artificial key which aims to uniquely identify each record is called a surrogate key.
These kind of key are unique because they are created when you don't have any
natural primary key. They do not lend any meaning to the data in the table.
Surrogate key is usually an integer.

Fname Lastname Start Time End Time

Anne Smith 09:00 18:00

Jack Francis 08:00 17:00

Anna McLean 11:00 20:00

Shown Willam 14:00 23:00

Above, given example, shown shift timings of the different employee. In this
example, a surrogate key is needed to uniquely identify each employee.
Surrogate keys are allowed when

 No property has the parameter of the primary key.

 In the table when the primary key is too big or complicated.
 Difference Between Primary key & Foreign key

Primary Key Foreign Key

Helps you to uniquely identify a record It is a field in the table that is the primary key
in the table. of another table.

Primary Key never accept null values. A foreign key may accept multiple null values.

Primary key is a clustered index and A foreign key cannot automatically create an
data in the DBMS table are physically index, clustered or non-clustered. However,
organized in the sequence of the you can manually create an index on the
clustered index. foreign key.

You can have the single Primary key in You can have multiple foreign keys in a table.
a table.

Integrity Constraints
o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have to be
performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints
o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an attribute.
o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The
value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:

2. Entity integrity constraints

o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
o This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if the
primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
o A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

Example:
3. Referential Integrity Constraints
o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.
o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary Key of
Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be available in Table 2.

Example:

4. Key constraints
o Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
o An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. A
primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

Example:
 Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step process to obtain the result
of the query. It uses operators to perform queries.

Types of Relational operation

1. Select Operation:
o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

1. Notation: σ p(r)

Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
 p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR and NOT. These
relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000

Perryride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Mianus L-13 500

Roundhill L-11 900

Perryride L-16 1300

Input:

1. σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:
o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear in the result. Rest of
the attributes are eliminated from the table.
 o It is denoted by ∏.

1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where

A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

Curry North Rye

Johnson Alma Brooklyn

Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:

1. ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:

NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison
 Curry Rye

Johnson Brooklyn

Brooks Brooklyn

3. Union Operation:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains all the tuples that are
either in R or S or both in R & S.
o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

1. Notation: R ∪ S

A union operation must hold the following condition:

o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:
DEPOSITOR RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO

Johnson A-101

Smith A-121

Mayes A-321

Turner A-176

Johnson A-273

Jones A-472
 Lindsay A-284

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO

Jones L-17

Smith L-23

Hayes L-15

Jackson L-14

Curry L-93

Smith L-11

Williams L-17

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Johnson

Smith

Hayes
 Turner

Jones

Lindsay

Jackson

Curry

Williams

Mayes

4. Set Intersection:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples that
are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

1. Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Smith

Jones
 5. Set Difference:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples that
are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

1. Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Jackson

Hayes

Willians

Curry

6. Cartesian product
o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with each row in the other
table. It is also known as a cross product.
o It is denoted by X.

1. Notation: E X D

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

 1 Smith A

2 Harry C

3 John B

DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

A Marketing

B Sales

C Legal

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT

Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing

1 Smith A B Sales

1 Smith A C Legal

2 Harry C A Marketing

2 Harry C B Sales
 2 Harry C C Legal

3 John B A Marketing

3 John B B Sales

3 John B C Legal

7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.

1. ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Join Operations
Join operation is essentially a cartesian product followed by a selection criterion.

Join operation denoted by ⋈.

JOIN operation also allows joining variously related tuples from different relations.

Types of JOIN:

Various forms of join operation are:

Inner Joins:

 Theta join
 EQUI join
 Natural join

Outer join:

 Left Outer Join

 Right Outer Join
 Full Outer Join

Inner Join:
In an inner join, only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria are included,
while the rest are excluded. Let's study various types of Inner Joins:

Theta Join:
The general case of JOIN operation is called a Theta join. It is denoted by symbol θ

Example

A ⋈θ B

Theta join can use any conditions in the selection criteria.

For example:

A ⋈ A.column 2 > B.column 2 (B)

A ⋈ A.column 2 > B.column 2

(B)

column 1 column 2

1 2

EQUI join:
When a theta join uses only equivalence condition, it becomes a equi join.

For example:

A ⋈ A.column 2 = B.column 2 (B)

A ⋈ A.column 2 = B.column 2
(B)

column 1 column 2

1 1
EQUI join is the most difficult operations to implement efficiently in an RDBMS and
one reason why RDBMS have essential performance problems.

NATURAL JOIN (⋈)

Natural join can only be performed if there is a common attribute (column) between
the relations. The name and type of the attribute must be same.

Example

Consider the following two tables

Num Square

2 4

3 9

Num Cube

2 8

3 27

C ⋈ D

C⋈D

Num Square Cube

2 4 4
3 9 27

OUTER JOIN
In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria, we also include
some or all tuples that do not match the criteria.

Left Outer Join(A B)

In the left outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the left relation. However, if
there is no matching tuple is found in right relation, then the attributes of right
relation in the join result are filled with null values.

Consider the following 2 Tables

Num Square

2 4

3 9

4 16

B
Num Cube

2 8

3 18

5 75

A B

A⋈B

Num Square Cube

2 4 4

3 9 9

4 16 -

Right Outer Join: ( A B)

In the right outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the right relation.
However, if there is no matching tuple is found in the left relation, then the attributes
of the left relation in the join result are filled with null values.

A B
 A⋈B

Num Cube Square

2 8 4

3 18 9

5 75 -

Full Outer Join: ( A B)

In a full outer join, all tuples from both relations are included in the result,
irrespective of the matching condition.

A B

A⋈B

Num Cube Square

2 4 8

3 9 18

4 16 -

5 - 75

Generalization
o Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more entities of lower level
combine to form a higher level entity if they have some attributes in common.
o In generalization, an entity of a higher level can also combine with the entities of the lower
level to form a further higher level entity.
 o Generalization is more like subclass and superclass system, but the only difference is the
approach. Generalization uses the bottom-up approach.
o In generalization, entities are combined to form a more generalized entity, i.e., subclasses are
combined to make a superclass.

For example, Faculty and Student entities can be generalized and create a higher level entity Person.

Specialization
o Specialization is a top-down approach, and it is opposite to Generalization. In specialization,
one higher level entity can be broken down into two lower level entities.
o Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set that shares some distinguishing
characteristics.
o Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its related attributes are defined
next, and relationship set are then added.

For example: In an Employee management system, EMPLOYEE entity can be specialized as TESTER
or DEVELOPER based on what role they play in the company.
Aggregation
In aggregation, the relation between two entities is treated as a single entity. In aggregation,
relationship with its corresponding entities is aggregated into a higher level entity.

For example: Center entity offers the Course entity act as a single entity in the relationship which is
in a relationship with another entity visitor. In the real world, if a visitor visits a coaching center then
he will never enquiry about the Course only or just about the Center instead he will ask the enquiry
about both.

Degree of Relationship
The degree of a relationship is the number of entity types that
participate(associate) in a relationship. By seeing an E-R diagram, we can
simply tell the degree of a relationship i.e the number of an entity type
that is connected to a relationship is the degree of that
relationship.

For example, If we have two entity type ‘Customer’ and ‘Account’ and they
are linked using the primary key and foreign key. We can say that the degree
of relationship is 2 because here two entities are taking part in the
relationship.
Based on the number of entity types that are connected we have the following
degree of relationships:

 Unary
 Binary
 Ternary
 N-ary

Unary (degree 1)

Binary (degree 2)
Ternary(degree 3)

N-ary (n degree)
We represent an N-ary relationship as follows:

In the above example, E1 denotes the first entity type, E2 denotes the second
entity type and so on. R represents the relationship. So, here we have a total
of 5 entity type which participates in the relationship. Therefore, the degree
of the above n-ary relationship is 5.
Codd's Rule for Relational DBMS
E.F Codd was a Computer Scientist who invented the Relational model for Database
management. Based on relational model, the Relational database was created. Codd
proposed 13 rules popularly known as Codd's 12 rules to test DBMS's concept against his
relational model. Codd's rule actualy define what quality a DBMS requires in order to become a
Relational Database Management System(RDBMS). Till now, there is hardly any commercial
product that follows all the 13 Codd's rules. Even Oracle follows only eight and half(8.5) out of
13. The Codd's 12 rules are as follows.

Rule zero
This rule states that for a system to qualify as an RDBMS, it must be able to manage database
entirely through the relational capabilities.

Rule 1: Information rule

All information(including metadata) is to be represented as stored data in cells of tables. The
rows and columns have to be strictly unordered.

Rule 2: Guaranted Access

Each unique piece of data(atomic value) should be accesible by : Table Name + Primary
Key(Row) + Attribute(column).
NOTE: Ability to directly access via POINTER is a violation of this rule.

Rule 3: Systematic treatment of NULL

Null has several meanings, it can mean missing data, not applicable or no value. It should be
handled consistently. Also, Primary key must not be null, ever. Expression on NULL must give
null.
Rule 4: Active Online Catalog
Database dictionary(catalog) is the structure description of the complete Database and it must
be stored online. The Catalog must be governed by same rules as rest of the database. The
same query language should be used on catalog as used to query database.

Rule 5: Powerful and Well-Structured Language

One well structured language must be there to provide all manners of access to the data stored
in the database. Example: SQL, etc. If the database allows access to the data without the use of
this language, then that is a violation.

Rule 6: View Updation Rule

All the view that are theoretically updatable should be updatable by the system as well.

Rule 7: Relational Level Operation

There must be Insert, Delete, Update operations at each level of relations. Set operation like
Union, Intersection and minus should also be supported.

Rule 8: Physical Data Independence

The physical storage of data should not matter to the system. If say, some file supporting table
is renamed or moved from one disk to another, it should not effect the application.

Rule 9: Logical Data Independence

If there is change in the logical structure(table structures) of the database the user view of data
should not change. Say, if a table is split into two tables, a new view should give result as the
join of the two tables. This rule is most difficult to satisfy.
 Rule 10: Integrity Independence
The database should be able to enforce its own integrity rather than using other programs. Key
and Check constraints, trigger etc, should be stored in Data Dictionary. This also
make RDBMS independent of front-end.

Rule 11: Distribution Independence

A database should work properly regardless of its distribution across a network. Even if a
database is geographically distributed, with data stored in pieces, the end user should get an
impression that it is stored at the same place. This lays the foundation of distributed database.

Rule 12: Nonsubversion Rule

If low level access is allowed to a system it should not be able to subvert or bypass integrity
rules to change the data. This can be achieved by some sort of looking or encryption.

Relation schema: A set of attributes is called a relation schema (or relation scheme). A
relation schema is also known as table schema (or table scheme). A relation schema can be
thought of as the basic information describing a table or relation. It is the logical definition of a
table. Relation schema defines what the name of the table is. This includes a set of column
names, the data types associated with each column.

Relational schema may also refer to as database schema. A database schema is the
collection of relation schemas for a whole database. Relational or Database schema is
a collection of meta-data. Database schema describes the structure and constraints of
data representing in a particular domain. A Relational schema can be described a
blueprint of a database that outlines the way data is organized into tables. This blueprint
will not contain any type of data. In a relational schema, each tuple is divided into fields
called Domains.
There are different kinds of database schemas:

 Conceptual schema
 Logical schema
 Physical schema
A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −
 Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its form of
storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a secondary storage.

 Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to be applied
on the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.

Reduction of ER diagram to Table

The database can be represented using the notations, and these notations can be reduced to a
collection of tables.

In the database, every entity set or relationship set can be represented in tabular form.

The ER diagram is given below:

There are some points for converting the ER diagram to the table:

o Entity type becomes a table.

In the given ER diagram, LECTURE, STUDENT, SUBJECT and COURSE forms individual tables.

o All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.

In the STUDENT entity, STUDENT_NAME and STUDENT_ID form the column of STUDENT table.
Similarly, COURSE_NAME and COURSE_ID form the column of COURSE table and so on.

o A key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary key.

In the given ER diagram, COURSE_ID, STUDENT_ID, SUBJECT_ID, and LECTURE_ID are the key
attribute of the entity.

o The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table.

In the student table, a hobby is a multivalued attribute. So it is not possible to represent multiple
values in a single column of STUDENT table. Hence we create a table STUD_HOBBY with column name
STUDENT_ID and HOBBY. Using both the column, we create a composite key.
 o Composite attribute represented by components.

In the given ER diagram, student address is a composite attribute. It contains CITY, PIN, DOOR#,
STREET, and STATE. In the STUDENT table, these attributes can merge as an individual column.

o Derived attributes are not considered in the table.

In the STUDENT table, Age is the derived attribute. It can be calculated at any point of time by
calculating the difference between current date and Date of Birth.

Using these rules, you can convert the ER diagram to tables and columns and assign the mapping
between the tables. Table structure for the given ER diagram is as below:

Figure: Table structure

Database Language
o A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to express database queries and updates.
o Database languages can be used to read, store and update the data in the database.

Types of Database Language

1. Data Definition Language
o DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure or pattern.
o It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
o Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
o Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the number of tables
and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.

Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

o Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

o Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
o Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
o Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
o Rename: It is used to rename an object.
o Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.

These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come under Data definition
language.

2. Data Manipulation Language

DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and manipulating data in a
database. It handles user requests.

Here are some tasks that come under DML:

 o Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
o Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
o Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
o Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
o Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
o Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
o Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
o Lock Table: It controls concurrency.

3. Data Control Language

o DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or saved data.
o The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.

(But in Oracle database, the execution of data control language does not have the feature of
rolling back.)

Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

o Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

o Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

There are the following operations which have the authorization of Revoke:

CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE, UPDATE and SELECT.

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical
transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

o Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

o Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.

Normalization
o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It is also
used to eliminate the undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion
Anomalies.
o Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using relationship.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.
Types of Normal Forms
There are the four types of normal forms:

Normal Description
Form

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on th
primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining should be lossles

First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-
valued attribute.
 o First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their
combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389, Punjab

8589830302

The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.
o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
primary key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a
school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table
TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a proper
subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math
 83 Computer

Third Normal Form (3NF)

o A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.
o 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
o If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third
normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every non-trivial
function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CIT

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicag

555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwic

666 John 462007 MP Bhopa

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent on EMP_ID.
The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively dependent on super
key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.
 That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new <EMPLOYEE_ZIP>
table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida

02228 US Boston

60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal

Boyce Codd normal form (BCNF)

o BCNF is the advance version of 3NF. It is stricter than 3NF.
o A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the table.
o For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD, LHS is super key.
 Example: Let's assume there is a company where employees work in more than one department.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

264 India Designing D394 283

264 India Testing D394 300

364 UK Stores D283 232

364 UK Developing D283 549

In the above table Functional dependencies are as follows:

1. EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
2. EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate key: {EMP-ID, EMP-DEPT}

The table is not in BCNF because neither EMP_DEPT nor EMP_ID alone are keys.

To convert the given table into BCNF, we decompose it into three tables:

EMP_COUNTRY table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY

264 India

264 India

EMP_DEPT table:

EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

Designing D394 283

Testing D394 300

 Stores D283 232

Developing D283 549

EMP_DEPT_MAPPING table:

EMP_ID EMP_DEPT

D394 283

D394 300

D283 232

D283 549

Functional dependencies:

1. EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
2. EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate keys:

For the first table: EMP_ID

For the second table: EMP_DEPT
For the third table: {EMP_ID, EMP_DEPT}

Now, this is in BCNF because left side part of both the functional dependencies is a key.

Fourth normal form (4NF)

o A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued
dependency.
o For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then the
relation will be a multi-valued dependency.

Example
STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing
 21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent entity. Hence,
there is no relationship between COURSE and HOBBY.

In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two courses, Computer and Math and
two hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a Multi-valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to
unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics

STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket
 59 Hockey

Fifth normal form (5NF)

o A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining should be
lossless.
o 5NF is satisfied when all the tables are broken into as many tables as possible in order to
avoid redundancy.
o 5NF is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

Example
SUBJECT LECTURER SEMESTER

Computer Anshika Semester 1

Computer John Semester 1

Math John Semester 1

Math Akash Semester 2

Chemistry Praveen Semester 1

In the above table, John takes both Computer and Math class for Semester 1 but he doesn't take Math
class for Semester 2. In this case, combination of all these fields required to identify a valid data.

Suppose we add a new Semester as Semester 3 but do not know about the subject and who will be
taking that subject so we leave Lecturer and Subject as NULL. But all three columns together acts as a
primary key, so we can't leave other two columns blank.

So to make the above table into 5NF, we can decompose it into three relations P1, P2 & P3:

P1

SEMESTER SUBJECT

Semester 1 Computer

Semester 1 Math
 Semester 1 Chemistry

Semester 2 Math

P2

SUBJECT LECTURER

Computer Anshika

Computer John

Math John

Math Akash

Chemistry Praveen

P3

SEMSTER LECTURER

Semester 1 Anshika

Semester 1 John

Semester 1 John

Semester 2 Akash

Semester 1 Praveen

SQL
o SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing data in
relational database management system (RDMS).
o It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to create, read,
update and delete relational databases and tables.
o All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL as their
standard database language.
o SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like statements.
Rules:
SQL follows the following rules:

o Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are written in
uppercase.
o Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL statement on one or
multiple text line.
o Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.
o SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.

SQL process:
o When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out the best way
to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines that how to interpret the task.
o In the process, various components are included. These components can be optimization
Engine, Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
o All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query engine won't
handle logical files.

Characteristics of SQL
o SQL is easy to learn.
o SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
o SQL can execute queries against the database.
o SQL is used to describe the data.
 o SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
o SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

SQL Commands
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is also used
to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table, modify
the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a table,
etc.
 o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the changes
in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:

1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

1. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE ;

Example

1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to modify the
characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

1. ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

EXAMPLE

1. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

2. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
 d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing the table.

Syntax:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of changes in
the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the
changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a table.

Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Or

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

For example:

1. INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.

Syntax:

1. UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CON

DITION]

For example:
1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
3. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax:

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:

1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

2. WHERE Author="Sonoo";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example

1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used while
creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT
 a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

1. COMMIT;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the
database.

Syntax:

1. ROLLBACK;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire
transaction.

Syntax:

1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select the
attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;
 For example:

1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age > 20;

SQL Table
o SQL Table is a collection of data which is organized in terms of rows and columns. In DBMS,
the table is known as relation and row as a tuple.
o Table is a simple form of data storage. A table is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations.

Let's see an example of the EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO

1 Kristen Washington 7289201223

2 Anna Franklin 9378282882

3 Jackson Bristol 9264783838

4 Kellan California 7254728346

5 Ashley Hawaii 9638482678

In the above table, "EMPLOYEE" is the table name, "EMP_ID", "EMP_NAME", "CITY", "PHONE_NO" are
the column names. The combination of data of multiple columns forms a row, e.g., 1, "Kristen",
"Washington" and 7289201223 are the data of one row.

Operation on Table
1. Create table
2. Drop table
3. Delete table
4. Rename table
 SQL Create Table
SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the table, you should define the
name of the table and also define its columns and column's data type.

Syntax

1. create table "table_name"

2. ("column1" "data type",
3. "column2" "data type",
4. "column3" "data type",
5. ...
6. "columnN" "data type");

Example

1. SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

2. EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
3. EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,
4. PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL,
5. ADDRESS CHAR (30),
6. PRIMARY KEY (ID)
7. );

If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the message by the SQL
server. Else you can use DESC command as follows:

SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

Now you have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and you can use the stored information related to
the employees.
 Drop table
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table. When this command
is executed, all the information available in the table is lost forever, so you have to very careful while
using this command.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE "table_name";

Firstly, you need to verify the EMPLOYEE table using the following command:

1. SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available in the database, so we can drop it as follows:

1. SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

Now, we can check whether the table exists or not using the following command:

1. Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

As this shows that the table is dropped, so it doesn't display it.

SQL DELETE table

In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. We can use WHERE condition to delete
a specific row from a table. If you want to delete all the records from the table, then you don't need to
use the WHERE clause.
 Syntax

1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example

Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 2.

1. SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

2. WHERE EMP_ID = 3;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

 5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.

SQL SELECT Statement

In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. The
returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-set.

Syntax

1. SELECT column1, column2, ...

2. FROM table_name;

Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you want to select data from.

Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:

1. SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:
1. SELECT EMP_ID FROM EMPLOYEE;

Output

EMP_ID

To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:

1. SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;

EMP_NAME SALARY

Kristen 150000

Russell 200000

Angelina 600000

Robert 350000

Christian 260000

To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:

1. SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

 3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

SQL INSERT Statement

The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data in a table. In SQL, You can insert
the data in two ways:

1. Without specifying column name

2. By specifying column name

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

1. Without specifying column name

If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column values.

Syntax

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);

Query
1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

2. By specifying column name

To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.

Syntax

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. [(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)]
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);

Query

1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack', 40);

Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

 2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

7 Jack null null 40

SQL Update Statement

The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database. The condition
in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
3. WHERE condition;

Sample Table
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is 500000.
 Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value
3. WHERE condition;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma'
3. WHERE SALARY = 500000;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Emma Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a comma. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to 'Kevin' and CITY to 'Boston' where EMP_ID is 5.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2
3. WHERE condition;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston'
3. WHERE EMP_ID = 5;

Output
 EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Kevin Boston 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Without use of WHERE clause

If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the WHERE clause. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value1;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Harry Chicago 200000 30

2 Harry Austin 300000 26

3 Harry Denver 100000 42

4 Harry Washington 500000 29

5 Harry Los angels 200000 36

6 Harry Canada 600000 48

 SQL DELETE Statement
The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally, DELETE statement removes
one or more records form a table.

Syntax

1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;

Sample Table
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Single Record

Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will delete only the fourth
row.

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

2. WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

 5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Multiple Record

Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30. This will delete two rows(first and third
row).

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Delete all of the records

Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The EMPLOYEE table
will become empty.

Syntax

1. DELETE * FROM table_name;

2. or
3. DELETE FROM table_name;

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

Views in SQL
o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a table.

Sample table:
Student_Detail

STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19

2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view
 A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from a single table
or multiple tables.

Syntax:

1. CREATE VIEW view_name AS

2. SELECT column1, column2.....
3. FROM table_name
4. WHERE condition;

2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS

2. SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
3. FROM Student_Details
4. WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.

1. SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the SELECT statement.

In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two tables Student_Detail and
Student_Marks.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

2. SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
3. FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
4. WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

To display data of View MarksView:

1. SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View
A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax

1. DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:

If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:

1. DROP VIEW MarksView;

SQL Constraints

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.

SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement, or
after the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the
constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column,
and table level constraints apply to the whole table.

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each
row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
 CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
 INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a column can hold NULL values.

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

This enforces a field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot insert a new
record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName" columns will NOT
accept NULL values when the "Persons" table is created:

Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);

SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a table, to maintain the
accuracy and integrity of the data inside table.
Constraints can be divided into the following two types,

1. Column level constraints: Limits only column data.

2. Table level constraints: Limits whole table data.

Constraints are used to make sure that the integrity of data is maintained in the database.
Following are the most used constraints that can be applied to a table.

 NOT NULL
 UNIQUE
 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY
 CHECK
 DEFAULT

NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having a NULL value. Once NOT NULL constraint
is applied to a column, you cannot pass a null value to that column. It enforces a column to
contain a proper value.
One important point to note about this constraint is that it cannot be defined at table level.

Example using NOT NULL constraint

CREATE TABLE Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will not take NULL value.

UNIQUE Constraint
UNIQUE constraint ensures that a field or column will only have unique values.
A UNIQUE constraint field will not have duplicate data. This constraint can be applied at column
level or table level.

Using UNIQUE constraint when creating a Table (Table Level)

Here we have a simple CREATE query to create a table, which will have a column s_id with
unique values.
CREATE TABLE Student(s_id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will only have unique values
and wont take NULL value.

Using UNIQUE constraint after Table is created (Column Level)

ALTER TABLE Student ADD UNIQUE(s_id);

The above query specifies that s_id field of Student table will only have unique value.

Primary Key Constraint

Primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database. A Primary Key must
contain unique value and it must not contain null value. Usually Primary Key is used to index the
data inside the table.

Using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Student (s_id int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age int);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.

Using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student ADD PRIMARY KEY (s_id);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.

Foreign Key Constraint

FOREIGN KEY is used to relate two tables. FOREIGN KEY constraint is also used to restrict
actions that would destroy links between tables. To understand FOREIGN KEY, let's see its
use, with help of the below tables:
Customer_Detail Table

c_id Customer_Name address

101 Adam Noida

102 Alex Delhi

103 Stuart Rohtak

Order_Detail Table
Order_id Order_Name c_id

10 Order1 101

11 Order2 103

12 Order3 102

In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table. The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table must be present in Customer_Detail table where it is set as primary key.
This prevents invalid data to be inserted into c_id column of Order_Detail table.
If you try to insert any incorrect data, DBMS will return error and will not allow you to insert the
data.

Using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Order_Detail(

order_id int PRIMARY KEY,

order_name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

c_id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id)

);

In this query, c_id in table Order_Detail is made as foriegn key, which is a reference
of c_id column in Customer_Detail table.

Using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Order_Detail ADD FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id);
Behaviour of Foriegn Key Column on Delete
There are two ways to maintin the integrity of data in Child table, when a particular record is
deleted in the main table. When two tables are connected with Foriegn key, and certain data in
the main table is deleted, for which a record exits in the child table, then we must have some
mechanism to save the integrity of data in the child table.

1. On Delete Cascade : This will remove the record from child table, if that value of foriegn
key is deleted from the main table.
2. On Delete Null : This will set all the values in that record of child table as NULL, for
which the value of foriegn key is deleted from the main table.
3. If we don't use any of the above, then we cannot delete data from the main table for
which data in child table exists. We will get an error if we try to do so.

ERROR : Record in child table exist

CHECK Constraint
CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a range. It performs check
on the values, before storing them into the database. Its like condition checking before saving
data into a column.
Using CHECK constraint at Table Level
CREATE table Student(

s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0),

Name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

Age int

);

The above query will restrict the s_id value to be greater than zero.

Using CHECK constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student ADD CHECK(s_id > 0);

SQL Aggregate Functions

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of a single
column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.

Types of SQL Aggregation Function

 1. COUNT FUNCTION
o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can work on both
numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a specified table.
COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.

Syntax

1. COUNT(*)
2. or
3. COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Sample table:

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

 Example: COUNT()

1. SELECT COUNT(*)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

Example: COUNT with WHERE

1. SELECT COUNT(*)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
3. WHERE RATE>=20;

Output:

Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT

1. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

Example: COUNT() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING COUNT(*)>2;

Output:
 Com1 5
Com2 3

2. SUM Function
Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric fields only.

Syntax

1. SUM()
2. or
3. SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

670

Example: SUM() with WHERE

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3;

Output:

320

Example: SUM() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3
4. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 150
Com2 170

Example: SUM() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;

Output:

Com1 335
Com3 170

3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG function returns the
average of all non-Null values.

Syntax

1. AVG()
2. or
3. AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT AVG(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

67.00

4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function determines the
largest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax

1. MAX()
2. or
3. MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MAX(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30

5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function determines the
smallest value of all selected values of a column.
 Syntax

1. MIN()
2. or
3. MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MIN(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

SQL Sub Query

A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and embedded within the WHERE clause.

Important Rule:

o A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause, FROM clause,
HAVING clause.
o You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along with the
operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.
o A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is known as the main query, and
the inner query is known as a subquery.
o Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
o A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
o In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But GROUP BY command can be used
to perform the same function as ORDER BY command.

1. Subqueries with the Select Statement

SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select statement.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name
2. FROM table_name
3. WHERE column_name expression operator
4. ( SELECT column_name from table_name WHERE ... );

Example

Consider the EMPLOYEE table have the following records:

 ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

6 Harry 42 China 4500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

The subquery with a SELECT statement will be:

1. SELECT *
2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
4. FROM EMPLOYEE
5. WHERE SALARY > 4500);

This would produce the following result:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

2. Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

o SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert statement. In the insert statement, data
returned from the subquery is used to insert into another table.
o In the subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the character, date functions.

Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....)

2. SELECT *
3. FROM table_name
4. WHERE VALUE OPERATOR

Example

Consider a table EMPLOYEE_BKP with similar as EMPLOYEE.

Now use the following syntax to copy the complete EMPLOYEE table into the EMPLOYEE_BKP table.

1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP

2. SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
3. WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
4. FROM EMPLOYEE);

3. Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Update statement. When a subquery is used
with the Update statement, then either single or multiple columns in a table can be updated.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table
2. SET column_name = new_value
3. WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
4. (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
5. FROM TABLE_NAME
6. WHERE condition);

Example

Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE table. The
given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in the EMPLOYEE table for all employee whose AGE is
greater than or equal to 29.

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
3. WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
4. WHERE AGE >= 29);

This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

 3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 1625.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 2125.00

6 Harry 42 China 1125.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

4. Subqueries with the DELETE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Delete statement just like any other
statements mentioned above.

Syntax

1. DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME

2. WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
3. (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
4. FROM TABLE_NAME
5. WHERE condition);

Example

Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE table. The
given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table for all EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater
than or equal to 29.

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

2. WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP
3. WHERE AGE >= 29 );

This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

SQL JOIN
As the name shows, JOIN means to combine something. In case of SQL, JOIN means "to combine two
or more tables".

In SQL, JOIN clause is used to combine the records from two or more tables in a database.

Types of SQL JOIN

1. INNER JOIN
2. LEFT JOIN
3. RIGHT JOIN
4. FULL JOIN

Sample Table
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

PROJECT

PROJECT_NO EMP_ID DEPARTMENT

101 1 Testing
 102 2 Development

103 3 Designing

104 4 Development

1. INNER JOIN
In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as long as the condition
is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows from both the tables where the condition satisfies.

Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. INNER JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. INNER JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development
 2. LEFT JOIN
The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching values from the right table. If
there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.

Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. LEFT JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. LEFT JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL

3. RIGHT JOIN
In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of right table and the
matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in both tables, it will return NULL.

Syntax
1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
2. FROM table1
3. RIGHT JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. RIGHT JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

4. FULL JOIN
In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join tables have all
the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches not found.

Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. FULL JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. FULL JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL

SQL Clauses
The following are the various SQL clauses:

1. GROUP BY
 o SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data into groups. The GROUP BY
statement is used with the SQL SELECT statement.
o The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the
ORDER BY clause.
o The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function.

Syntax

1. SELECT column
2. FROM table_name
3. WHERE conditions
4. GROUP BY column
5. ORDER BY column

Sample table:

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50
 Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example:

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

2. HAVING
o HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate.
o Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not using GROUP BY clause then you can use
HAVING function like a WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column1, column2

2. FROM table_name
3. WHERE conditions
4. GROUP BY column1, column2
5. HAVING conditions
6. ORDER BY column1, column2;

Example:

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING COUNT(*)>2;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3

3. ORDER BY
o The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending or descending order.
 o It sorts the records in ascending order by default. DESC keyword is used to sort the records in
descending order.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column1, column2

2. FROM table_name
3. WHERE condition
4. ORDER BY column1, column2... ASC|DESC;

Where

ASC: It is used to sort the result set in ascending order by expression.

DESC: It sorts the result set in descending order by expression.

Example: Sorting Results in Ascending Order

Table:

CUSTOMER

CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

12 Kathrin US

23 David Bangkok

34 Alina Dubai

45 John UK

56 Harry US

Enter the following SQL statement:

1. SELECT *
2. FROM CUSTOMER
3. ORDER BY NAME;

Output:
 CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

34 Alina Dubai

23 David Bangkok

56 Harry US

45 John UK

12 Kathrin US

Example: Sorting Results in Descending Order

Using the above CUSTOMER table

1. SELECT *
2. FROM CUSTOMER
3. ORDER BY NAME DESC;

Output:

CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS

12 Kathrin US

45 John UK

56 Harry US

23 David Bangkok

34 Alina Dubai
 SQL Set Operation
The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements.

Types of Set Operation

1. Union
2. UnionAll
3. Intersect
4. Minus

1. Union
o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in both the
tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

The First table

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack
 2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing duplication
and sorting the data.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson
 4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect
o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the common
rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4. Minus
o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the rows
which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. MINUS
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. MINUS
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry