CHAPTER 3: ALIGNMENT

3.1 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

3.1.1 Introduction

Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and
safety of a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds and the lowering of a highway
capacity. The max comfortable speed on a horizontal curve is primarily dependent upon the
radius of the curve and the superelevation of the carriageway.

Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc and
two transition curves forming a curve which joins two straights. In certain situations, the
transition curve may have zero length. The design procedure itself must commence with fixing
the position of the two straight lines which the curve will join together. The basic parameter
relating these two lines is the intersection angle. Figure 3.1 below indicates a typical horizontal
alignment.

Figure 3.1 Typical horizontal alignment

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 3.1.2 Curvature and centrifugal force.

Anybody moving rapidly along a curved path is subject to an outward reactive force called
centrifugal force. On highway curves this force tends to cause the vehicles to overturn or slide
outward from the centre of the road.

Figure 3.2 The forces acting on a vehicle as it moves about a horizontal curve.
Since the carriageway surface is flat and the forces are in equilibrium then;

P = WV2
gR
Where W = weight of the vehicle kg.
V = speed of vehicle in m/s.
R = radius of curve, m.
G = acceleration due to gravity ms2
P = lateral friction force resisting centrifugal force kg.

But P = Nμ = Wμ = WV2
gR
Therefore μ = V2 = P
gR W

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 Where μ is developed lateral coefficient of friction and P/W = V2 known as
centrifugal ratio. gR
when the velocity is expressed in Km/h and g as 9.81 ms2 then

μ = V2 (approx)
127R
Thus if the limiting value of μ is known, the minimum radius can be calculated for any given
design speed.
The centrifugal force also tends to cause a vehicle to overturn. This force acting through the
centre of gravity of the vehicle causes an overturning movement about the points of contact
between the outer wheels of the vehicle and the carriageway surface. This overturning is resisted
by a righting moment caused by the weight of the vehicle acting through its centre of gravity.
Superelevation

In order to resist the outward – acting centrifugal force, it is customary to super elevate or slope
the carriageway cross – section of curved section of a modern highway as shown in figure above.
For every combination of radius of curvature and highway design speed, there is a particular rate
of super elevation that exactly balances the centrifugal force.

The side friction force P, can be expressed as

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 P= μ [W x Cos (α) + C x Sin (α)

Dividing through by W Cosα we get.

Tan (α) + μ + μ V2/gR tan (α) =V2/gR

If we ignore the term μ V2/gR tan (α) on the basis that it is extremely small, the following final
expression is obtained

Tan (α) + μ= V2/gR

Where, α = angle of super elevation.

If tan α is expressed in terms of slope e, then this indicates that the centrifugal force is resisted
partly with super elevation and partly by the lateral friction. Replacing V m/s by V km/h and g =
9.81 ms2 then the minimum radius equation becomes
V2 = e +μ
127R

If μ = 0 and the forces acting on the vehicle are in equilibrium, then the centrifugal force is
entirely counteracted by the super elevation. In order to minimize the danger of sliding, the super
elevation slope must never be greater than the minimum lateral coefficient that can be developed
between the tyre and the carriageway under the design weather conditions.

Table 3.1 The recommended desirable and absolute minimum radii for rural roads.

Design speed km/h Desirable minimum radius Absolute minimum radius

(m) for super elevation of
(m) for super elevation of
0.04 0.07 0.04 0.07
80 500 300 260 230
60 275 170 150 130
50 200 120 90 80
30 75 50 35 30

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 3.1.3 Horizontal sight distances.

In certain instances, the radius of curvature determined by using limiting values of e and μ may
not be adequate to ensure that, at the very least, the min safe stopping sight distance requirements
are met. To provide the necessary horizontal sight distances it may be necessary to set back
slopes of cuttings, fences, buildings or such obstructions adjacent to the carriageway. If these
obstructions are immovable, it may be necessary to redesign the road alignment in order to meet
safety requirements.
Note for design purposes, the line of sight is a chord of the curve and the applicable stopping
distance is measured along the central line of the inside lane around the curve.

The most usual methods of calculating the offset distance necessary to secure the required
horizontal sight distance are illustrated is figures below:

Figure 3.3(a) illustrates the situation where the required sight distance lies wholly within the length
of the curved road section and ACB is equal to the required sight distance s. The minimum offset
distance m from the centre line to the obstruction can be estimated by considering the track of the
vehicle to be along the chords AC and CB rather than along the arc of the curve.
By geometry
R2= X2 +(R-M) 2 and X2= (S/2)2 –M2

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 Therefore

M= S2
8R

Figure 3.3(b) illustrates the situation where the required sight distance is greater than the
available length of curve L. Thus the sight distance overlaps the highway curve on the tangents
for a distance l on either side.
If the length of the curve is L and stopping distance is S, then

(S/2)2 = X2+M2 and X2= d2- (R-M) 2 and d2= [(S-L)/2] +R2
Therefore

M= L (2S-L)
8R

3.1.4 Widening of circular curves

Curve widening refers to the extra width of carriageway that is required on a curved section of a
highway over and above that required on a tangent section. Curved sections of a normal 2 –lane
roads are visually widened for two main reasons.
i. Additional width required because of the extra road space occupied by a vehicle turning about
a curve. Rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than front wheels which increases
effective width of road space required by vehicles. In order to provide some clearance between
opposing vehicles on curved sections, there must be an extra width of carriageway available.
ii. Natural tendency of drivers to shy away from the edges of the carriageway as they transverse a
curve. This reduces the medial clearance between opposing vehicles and increases accident
potential of the curved section.

Widening procedure.
i. On simple circular curves, the total extra width should be applied to the inside of the
carriageway while the outside edge and the centre line are both kept as concentric circular arcs

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 ii. Where transition curves are provided before and after a simple curve, the widening may be
equally divided between the inside and the outside curve or it may be wholly applied to the
inside of the carriageway.
iii. The extra width should always be attained gradually and not abruptly to ensure that the entire
carriageway is usable.
iv. From an aesthetic point of view, the edges of the carriageway should at all times form smooth
and graceful curves.

3.1.5 Applications of Transition curves

The provision of transition curves between tangents and circular curves has the following
principal advantages:
i. Transition curves provide a natural easy-to-follow path for drivers, such that the centripetal
force increases and decreases gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular curve.
ii. The transition between the normal cross slope and the fully superelevated section on the
curve can be effected along the length of transition curve in a manner closely fitting the
speed-radius relation for the vehicle traversing it.
iii. Where the pavement width is to be widened around a sharp circular curve, the widening can
conveniently be applied over the transition curve length, in part, on the outside of the
pavement without a reverse-edge alignment.
iv. The appearance of the highway is enhanced by the application of transition curves.

Transition curves should preferably be used on all superelevated curves for arterial (primary)
roads with high design speed. The clothoid which is characterized by having a constantly
changing radius is normally considered the most convenient type of transition curve. The
primary purpose of transition curves is to enable vehicles moving at high speeds to make the
change from the tangent section to the curved section of a road in a safe and comfortable
fashion. The proper introduction of transition curves will provide a natural easy-to-follow path
for motorists so that the centrifugal force increases and decreases gradually as the vehicle enters
and leaves the circular curves.

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 The 3 major factors governing transition curve design are the radii of the curvature RC, (circular
arc) the external angle θ, (angle of intersection) and the length of transition L. Of these R and θ
are usually selected on the basis of the conditions existing in the field. L is selected on the basis
of the factors affecting the comfort and security of the motorist.

As a vehicle passes along the transition curve, its centrifugal acceleration changes from zero at
target intersection to V2∕Rc at circular curve intersection. The transition length over which this
change takes place is equal to the vehicle velocity v multiplied by the travel time t. Thus

t sec = Ls ∕v

If rate of gain of radial acceleration is denoted by C, then,

If C is controlled and becomes the allowable rate of change of radial acceleration, then

Where Ls = transition length m.

V = design speed km / h.
Rc = radius of circular curve m.
C values often used vary between 0.3 – 0.6 ms-3.

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 3.2 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

3.2.1 Introduction

Once the horizontal alignment has been determined, the vertical alignment of the section of
highway in question can be addressed. Vertical alignment design refers to the design of the
tangents and curves along the profile of the road. When designing alignment of a road, it must
be ensured that, at the very least, minimum stopping sight distance requirements are met.
Furthermore, on the multi–lane roads, the design must provide adequate stretches of highway to
enable faster vehicles to overtake comfortably and safely. The figure below shows an example:

Figure 3.4 Example of typical vertical alignment

3.2.2 Types of vertical curves

a) Crest/Summit curves
The major factor affecting the design of summit curves is the sight distance across the
summit since it is essential that an obstruction on the other side of the summit
whether stationery or in motion must be visible to the driver on this side of summit
and vice versa. Summit curves are required to be introduced at the situations where,

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 • A positive grade meets a negative grade
• A positive grade meets another milder positive grade

• A positive grademeets a level stretch

• A negative grade meets a steeper negative grade

Figure 3.5 crest curves

b) Sag/Valley curves
The problems of seeing across the road on both sides do not exist. Valley curves are
required to be introduced at the situation where
• A negative grade meets a positive grade
• A negative grade meets a milder negative grade
• A negative grade meets a level stretch
• A positive grade meets a steeper positive grade

Figure 3.6 Sag curves

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 3.2.3 Gradients

Long steep uphill grades can have a considerate effect on vehicle speeds. This is important on
highways where commercial vehicles form a considerable portion of the traffic flow as speed of
traffic is often controlled by speed of slower commercial vehicles.

Uphill gradients can be a cause of accidents between vehicles in opposing traffic streams since
faster vehicles are tempted to overtake where normally they might not do so.

Safety can also be an important consideration on downhill gradients due to the possibility of
relatively greater increases in vehicle speeds.

Maximum grades.
Grades of up to about 7% have relatively little effect on the speeds of passenger cars. However,
speeds of commercial vehicles are considerably reduced when long gradients with grade in
excess of 2% are used.
Most highway authorities now accept a gradient of 4% as being the max desirable on major
highways. Hence this criterion is usually a controlling feature of highway design.

When uphill sections are less than 200 m long, grades of 5 % - 6% can be utilized. This is
because vehicles usually accelerate upon entering an uphill section and this extra momentum is
sufficient to overcome the effect of the extra increase in slope over this shorter distances.

Creeper lanes
The max grade is not in itself a complete design control. It is also necessary to consider the
length of the gradient and its effect on desirable vehicles operation.

When the uphill climb is extremely long, an extra “creeper” lane may have to be provided to
allow ascending slower moving vehicles to be removed from the main traffic stream, thus
allowing the faster vehicles very much greater freedom of movement and action.

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 The point at which the creeper lane should be initiated depends on the speeds at which the
commercial vehicles begin to ascend the hill. When there are no restrictive sight distances or
other features that might result in low vehicle approach speeds, the extra lane should be
introduced some distance uphill from the beginning of the slope, ideally at the point where
vehicle speeds have been reduced to the speed for capacity. Otherwise when restrictions cause
lower approach speeds, then the creeper lane will obviously have to be initiated closer to the
bottom of the hill.

For safety reasons, the extra lane should end at the point well beyond the crest of the hill so that
the slower vehicle can return to their normal rate without hazard.

Minimum grades
These are only critical at locations where surface drainage is of particular importance. Normally
the camber of the road is sufficient to take care of the lateral carriageway surface drainage. In cut
sections, however it may be necessary to introduce a slight longitudinal gradient into the road
surface in order to achieve longitudinal drainage in the side ditches. A min grade of 0.5% (1 in
200) is desirable in these instances.

3.2.4 Parabolic formula

Figure 3.7 Basic parabolic curve.

Referring to Fig. 3.7, the formula for determining the co-ordinates of points along a typical
vertical curve is:
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 where

p and q are the gradients of the two straights being joined by the vertical curve in question.

L is the vertical curve length

x and y are the relevant co-ordinates in space (x is the distance along the curve measured from
the start of the vertical curve and y is the vertical offset measured from the continuation of the
slope to the curve).

At the intersection point PI:

x = L/2

Therefore

The co-ordinates of the highest/lowest point on the parabolic curve, frequently required for the
estimation of minimum sight distance requirements, are:

3.2.5 Crossfalls
To ensure adequate rainfall run-off from the surface of the highway, a minimum crossfall of
2.5% is advised, either in the form of a straight camber extending from one edge of the
carriageway to the other or as one sloped from the centre of the carriageway towards both edges.

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 Figure 3.8 Highway crossfalls.

3.2.6 Vertical crest curve design and sight distance requirements

In the case of a crest curve, the intervening highway pavement obstructs the visibility between
driver and object. The curvature of crest curves should be sufficiently large in order to provide
adequate sight distance for the driver. In order to provide this sight distance, the curve length L is
a critical parameter. Too great a length is costly to the developer while too short a length
compromises critical concerns such as safety and vertical clearance to structures.

For vertical crest curves, the relevant parameters are:

• The sight distance S

• The length of the curve L

In order to estimate the minimum curve length, Lm, of a crest curve, two conditions must be
considered:

a) Case where S ≤ L.

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It is a case where the required sight distance is contained within the crest curve length (S ≤L)

Figure 3.9 Case where S ≤L

Where;

• The driver’s eye height H1

• The height of the object on the highway H2

• Minimum curve length Lm.

The formulae relating to this condition are:

where

A is the algebraic difference between the two straight-line gradients.

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0), then previous equation is reduced to:

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

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 b) Case where S > L.
It entails the sight distance extending into the tangents either side of the parabolic crest curve

Figure 3.10 Case where S >L

The formulae relating to this condition are:

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0), then previous equation is reduced to:

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

3.2.7 Vertical sag curve design and sight distance requirements

In general, the two main criteria used as a basis for designing vertical sag curves are driver
comfort and clearance from structures.

a) Driver comfort

Although it is conceivable that both crest and sag curves can be designed on the basis of comfort
rather than safety, it can be generally assumed that, for crest curves, the safety criterion will
prevail and sight distance requirements will remain of paramount importance. However, because
of the greater ease of visibility associated with sag curves, comfort is more likely to be the
primary design criterion for them.

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 Where comfort is taken as the main criterion, the following formula is utilized in order to
calculate the required curve length:

where

L is the required vertical sag curve length (m)

V is the speed of the vehicle (km/hr)

A is the algebraic difference in the straight-line gradients

The vertical radial acceleration of the vehicle is assumed to be 0.3 m/s 2

b) Clearance from structures

In certain situations, where structures such as bridges are situated on sag curves, the primary
design criterion for designing the curve itself may be the provision of necessary clearance in
order to maintain the driver’s line of sight. Commercial vehicles, with assumed driver eye heights
of approximately 2m, are generally taken for line of sight purposes, with object heights again
taken as 0.26m.

Again, as with crest curves, two forms of the necessary formula exist, depending on whether the
sight distance is or is not contained within the curve length.

Case S ≤L

where

Cl is the clearance height on the relevant structure located on the sag curve, generally taken in
ideal circumstances at 5.7 m for bridge structures.

A, H1, H2 and S are as above.

Case S >L

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 Sag curves in night-time conditions

A critical design concern for sag curves during night-time conditions can be headlight sight
distance, where the length of the highway illuminated by the car’s headlights is the governing
parameter. The critical measurement in this instance will be the height of the headlights above
the surface of the highway. This process is, however, highly sensitive to the angle of upward
divergence of the light beam.

The governing formulae are:

where

Hl is the height of the headlight above the highway in metres, normally assumed as 0.61m.

S is the required sight stopping distance in metres, dependent on design speed

ß is the inclined upward angle of the headlight beam relative to the horizontal plane of the
vehicle (in degrees).

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 3.3 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

3.3.1 Introduction

Although many aspects of highway design can be determined by considering horizontal and
vertical alignment separately from one another, it is important to understand the relationship
between them. Proper coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment is important for reasons
related to the esthetics, economics, and safety of the facility.

As a general rule, horizontal curvature and grades should be kept in balance. That is, the designer
should avoid both the provision of minimal curvature at the expense of long, steep grades and the
provision of level vertical alignment at the expense of excessive horizontal curvature.

Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more
than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such defects
often occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a psychological
obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce speed suddenly. In other cases, the defects may
endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards ahead. A horizontal curve hidden by a crest
curve is an example of this kind of defect.

3.3.2 Types of Mis-phasing and Corrective Action

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident, no
phasing problem occurs, and no corrective action is required. Where defects occur, phasing may
be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common station. In some cases,
depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common
station.

Several distinct types of mis-phasing occur and are described and illustrated in the subsequent
sections.

3.3.3.1 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

Especially for trunk and link roads where the algebraic difference between successive gradients
is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, obtained by applying the formula,
becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the grade line. If the vertical
alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short length, the result can be a ‘hidden dip’
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 profile, and/or a ‘roller coaster’ type profile, as indicated in Figure 3.11. Where the algebraic
difference in gradient is less than 0.5 %, a minimum curve length is recommended for purely
aesthetic reasons. The minimum length should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h
and, for preference, should be 400 m or longer, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain.

Figure 3.11: Hidden Dip (Roller Coaster) Profile

3.3.3.2 Crest and Sag Curve Have a Common Beginning or End

Where a crest curve and a succeeding sag curve have a common beginning or end, the visual effect
created is that the road has suddenly dropped away. In the reverse case, the illusion of a hump is
created. Both effects are removed by inserting a short length of straight grade between the two
curves. Typically, 60 m to 100 m is adequate for this purpose.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the appearance of ‘humps’ when short crests and sags are included on a long
horizontal curve. Maintaining a constant grade is the preferred option.

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 Figure 3.12: Out-of-phase Vertical and Horizontal Alignments

3.3.3.3 Sag Curve at the Start of a Horizontal Curve

A sag curve at the start of a horizontal curve has the effect of enhancing the sharp angle
appearance as shown in Figure 3.13 and should be avoided. Raising the preceding grade will
move the sag curve downstream. A longer radius on the horizontal curve would cause it to
start earlier. Applying both remedial measures should result in a better phasing of the
horizontal and vertical alignments.

Figure 3.13: Out-of-phase Vertical and Horizontal Alignments

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3.3.3.4 A Short Dip in the Alignment Preceding a Horizontal Curve
Similar to Section3.3.4, a short discontinuity or dip in the alignment preceding a horizontal
curve creates a particularly discordant view. Again, this is similar to the ‘roller
coaster’ profile shown in Figure 3.11 above but with a horizontal component. Eliminating the
crest curve in advance and the following sag curve improves the appearance.

Figure 3.14: Short Dip in the Alignment Preceding a Horizontal Curve

3.3.3.5 Distorted Alignment
A common fault is illustrated in Figure 3.15. The roadway is often unnaturally curved to cross
a small stream at right angles. The advantages in the aesthetics of an alignment with a skew
crossing often far outweigh the savings deriving from a square crossing.

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 Figure 3.15: Distorted Alignment to Create a Square River Crossing
3.3.3.6 Broken Back Curves
Figure 3.16 illustrates a broken-back curve. This is two curves in the same direction separated
by a short tangent. Such a combination can be improved. Also, a ‘broken plank’ grade line,
where two long grades are connected by a short sag curve, is equally unacceptable. Using a
single radius curve throughout as illustrated is preferred.

Figure 3.16: Broken-back Curve.

3.3.3.7 Variations in Vertical Alignment on Long Horizontal Curves
Significant changes in grade of the vertical alignment, as shown in Figure 3.17 should be

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avoided on long horizontal curves.

Figure 3.17: Variable Gradients (Rolling Grade-line)

3.3.3.8 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve lie on the Horizontal Curve
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical
curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. The corrective
action is to make both ends of the curves coincident, or to separate them.
3.3.3.9 Start of Horizontal Curves not Visible
Figure 3.18 shows the effect when the start of a horizontal curve is hidden by an intervening
crest and the continuation of the curve is visible in the distance. The road appears disjointed.

Figure 3.18: Break in Horizontal Alignment

3.3.3.10 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed
because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous, and the
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resulting crashes are usually head-on collisions. The position of the crest is important because
vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient following the highest point of the crest curve,
and the danger due to an unexpected change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag
curve overlaps a horizontal curve, an apparent kink may be produced.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that if the horizontal curve is of short radius, they are
coincident at both ends, or if the horizontal curve is of longer radius, they need be coincident at only
one end.
3.3.3.11 Insufficient Separation between the Curves
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false
reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve.
Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves or making the curves
concurrent.
3.3.3.12 Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created
because a vehicle must undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical curve
while sight distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is less
sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the
change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for
traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end to bring the crest on to the
horizontal curve. No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a
gentle horizontal curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, will appear in the
road alignment. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate
them.
It is important to note that local dips to minimise earthworks that result in a disjointed alignment will
be there for the life of the road Figure 3.19 illustrate the advantages of co-ordinating the horizontal
and vertical alignment. In each case the vertical curve is contained within the horizontal curve.

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 Figure 3.19: Well-coordinated horizontal and vertical alignment
3.3.4 The Economic Cost of Good Phasing
The correct phasing of vertical curves restricts the designer in fitting the road to the topography at
the lowest cost. Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra earthworks and the designer
must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic. The designer will normally accept curves that
have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the
designer will have to balance the costs of trial alignments against their elegance.

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