UNIT -I

EDITION

JSPM’s
RAJARSHI SHAHU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TATHAWADE, PUNE-33
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)

Manufacturing
Process- I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit-1 Metrology and Inspection

AUTHOR
Prof. N.S.Dixit
 JSPM’s
Rajarshi Shahu College of Engineering, Pune- 411 033
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject: - [ME2106] Manufacturing Process- I

Academic Year: 2020-21 Semester: IV
Class: S.Y. B.Tech (Mechanical) Div: D

Name of Faculty: Asst. Prof. N. S. Dixit

Teaching Scheme: Credit: Examination Scheme:

TH : 03 Hours/Week TH : 03 In Sem. Evaluation:15 Marks
LAB: 04 Hours/Week LAB: 02 Mid Sem. Exam : 25 Marks
TU : 00 Hours/Week End Sem. Exam : 60 Marks
LAB Evaluation : 50 Marks

Unit-I
Metrology and Inspection
Syllabus: Introduction to measuring instruments, Measurement standards, Types and sources of errors,
Accuracy and Precision, Limits, fits and tolerances, linear and angular measurements, comparators, form
and finish measurement; tolerance analysis in manufacturing and assembly.

Introduction:

The word metrology is derived from two Greek words. ‘Metro’ meaning measurement and ‘Logy’
meaning science.
Metrology: Metrology is the science of measurement. In any manufacturing activity the job of a desired
accuracy can only be produced if it is possible to check it to the same accuracy.
This science is concerned with six fundamental quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature
and light interference. From these basic quantities most, other physical quantities are derived, such as
area, volume, velocity, acceleration, force, electric voltage and heat energy.
Measuring may be defined as the process of finding the dimensions of the job and a value of the
dimension is obtained, it is done with measuring instrument. There are three important elements of a
measurement.

(i) Measurand, i.e. the physical quantity or property like length, angle etc. being measured.

(ii) Comparison or comparator, i.e. the means of comparing Measurand with some reference to render a
judgment.

(iii) Reference, i.e. the physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons are made.
Dimensional metrology is that branch of Metrology which deals with measurement of “dimensions “of a
part or work piece (lengths, angles, etc.) Dimensional measurements at the required level of accuracy are
the essential link between the designers’ intent and a delivered product.

Introduction to measuring instruments:

Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a dimension or the process of

comparison with standard measuring instruments. The elements of measuring system include the
instrumentation, calibration standards, environmental influence, human operator limitations and features
of the work-piece. The basic aim of measurement in industries is to check whether a component has been
manufactured to the requirement of a specification or not.

Methods of Measurements

The methods of measurement can be classified as:

l. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Method of measurement by substitution
10. Method of null measurement

1. Direct method of measurement:

This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the quantity to be measured is obtained
directly without any calculations. For example, measurements by using scales, Vernier callipers,
micrometres, bevel protector etc. This method is most widely used in production. This method is not very
accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in making judgment.

2. Indirect method of measurement:

In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities which
are functionally related to the required value. e.g. angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw
pitch diameter by three wire method etc.

3. Absolute or Fundamental method:

It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the quantity. For example, measuring
a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by
direct measurement of the quantities linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured.
4. Comparative method:
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared with known value of the same
quantity or other quantity practically related to it. In this method only, the deviations from a master gauge
are determined, e.g. dial indicators or other comparators.

5. Transposition method:
It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value of the quantity measured is first
balanced by an initial known value A of the same quantity, then the value of the quantity measured is put
in place of this known value and is balanced again by another known value B.
If the position of the element indicating equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value of the quantity to
be measured is AB. For example, determination of a mass by means of a balance and known weights,
using the Gauss double weighing.

6. Coincidence method:
It is a differential method of measurement in which a very small difference between the value of the
quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain
lines or signals. For example, measurement by Vernier calliper, micrometre.

7. Deflection method:
By a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale. In this method the value of the quantity to be measured
is directly indicated.

8. Complementary method:
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the same
quantity. For example, determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.

9. Method of measurement by substitution:

It is a method of direct comparison in which the value of a quantity to be measured is replaced by a known
value of the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating device by these two
values are the same.

10. Method of null measurement: It is a method of differential measurement. In this method the
difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity
with which it is compared is brought to zero.

Measurement Standards:

The term standard is used to designate universally accepted specification for a quantity. A standard
provides reference for assigning a numerical value to a measured quantity. For higher overall economy &
efficiency of an organization or a country it is necessary that diversity is minimized & interchangeability
encouraged. Standards means to ensure uniformity & interchangeability throughout a particular industry.
Each basic measurable quantity has associated with it an ultimate standard.

Fig. 1 Linear Measurement

Classification of Standards:
1. International prototype
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards.

1. International Prototype:
• International prototypes are the universally accepted physical representations of basic units to
which all measurement is attributed.
• These are maintained in highly controlled conditions so that measurements can be assumed to be
invariable.

2. Primary Standard:
• Primary standards are essentially copies of the international prototypes that are kept in the National
standard laboratories & institution of similar standing.
• These standards are quite stable, independent, invariant and finite.
• These standards are designed with following points in mind
1. Rigidity of construction & accuracy of machining.
2. Very low temp. Sensitivity & long-time stability of materials.
3. No environmental effect on their characteristics.
• The primary standards are available for use only in the national laboratories for reference &
calibration of secondary standard.

3. Secondary Standards:

• Secondary standards are reference standards calibrated from the primary standards. These
standards are kept as reference in the industrial organizations & measured laboratories to check &
calibrate their measuring instrument.
 • Secondary standards are periodically sent to the national standards laboratories for checking &
calibration.
• The frequency of calibration of the secondary standards depend upon the accuracy & the type of
secondary standards.

4. Working Standard:

• These are actually standards usually used by the industries.

• The production measuring instruments used in the factory are checked against these working
standards.
• The accuracy of the working standards is one order lower than that of the secondary standard.

Length Standards:

Length may be measured between two parallel lines or two surfaces.

Line Standard: When the distance is measured in terms of distance between two lines it is known as
line measurement
End Standard: When measurement is done in terms of distance between two surfaces it is known as
End measurement.

Line standards

Fig. 2 Line Standards

1. International standard meter

2. Imperial standard yard.
• The measurement of distance may be made between two parallel lines.
• When, the length, being measured, is expressed as a distance between the centres of two engraved
lines as in a steel rule, it is known as line measurement.
• Line standards are used for direct length comparison and they have no auxiliary devices.
 • Yard or meter is the line standard. Yard or meter is defined as the distance between scribed lines
on a bar of metal under certain environmental condition. These are the legal standards.

1. Meter: It is the distance between the centre portions of two lines etched on a polished surface of a
bar of pure platinum alloy (90%) and irridum alloy (10%). It has overall width and depth of 16 mm
each and is kept at 0°C and under normal atmospheric pressure.

• 1 meter = 1.09361 yard

Fig. 3 Meter

2. Yard:

Yard is a bronze bar with square cross-section and 38 inches long. A bar of 38 inches long has a round
recess of 0.5 inches diameter and 0.5 inches deep. A round recess is 1 inch away from the two ends. A
gold plug of 0.1-inch diameter, having three lines is etched transversely and two lines engraved
longitudinally arc inserted into these holes. The yard is then distance between two central transverse lines
on the plugs when the temperature of bar is at 62°F.

1 yard = 0.9144 meter

Fig. 4 Yard
Characteristics of Line Standards:

1. Accurate engraving on the scales can be done but it is difficult to take full advantage of this accuracy.
For example, a steel rule can be read to about ± 0.2 mm of true dimension.
2. It is easier and quicker to use a scale over a wide range.
3. The scale markings are not subject to wear although significant wear on leading end leads to under
sizing.
4. There is no 'built in' datum in a scale which would allow easy scale alignment with the axis of
measurement, this again leads to under sizing.
5. Scales are subjected to the parallax effect, a source of both positive and negative reading errors.
6. For close tolerance length measurement (except in conjunction with microscopes) scales are not
convenient to be used.

End Standard:

1) End standards, in the form of the bars and slip gauges, are in general use in precision engineering as
well as in standard laboratories such as the N.P.L (National Physical Laboratory).
2) A modern end standard consists fundamentally of a block or bar of steel generally hardened whose end
faces are lapped flat and parallel to within a few millionth of a cm. By the process of lapping, its size too
can be controlled very accurately.

Characteristics of End Standards:

1. Highly accurate and well suited to close tolerance measurements.

2. Time-consuming in use.
3. Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.
4. Subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
5. To provide a given size, the groups of blocks are "wrung" together. Faulty wringing leads to damage.
6. There is a "built-in" datum in end standards, because their measuring faces are flat and parallel and can
be positively located on a datum surface.
7. Not parallax effect.

Difference between line and end standard

Sr. No. Line Standard End Standard

1 Length is measured between two lines. Length is expressed between two parallel flat
surfaces.
2 Measurement is simple & quick. Time for measurement is more.
3 Possibility of parallax error. Error due to improper wringing or change in
temp.
4 Accuracy up to ± 0.2 mm unless provided Accurate up to ± 0.001 mm.
with magnifying glass.
5 Comparatively simple to manufacture & low Complex method of manufacturing & higher
cost. cost.
6 End of the scale is subject to wear. Due to continuous use measuring faces get
worn out special end pieces may be needed.
Wavelength standard:

Because of the possibility of the variation in length of metal bars, wavelength of light has been considered
as a better basic unit as primary standard. A meter has thus been defined as equal to 1650763.73 wave
length of the red orange radiation of Krypton isotope 86.
Wavelength standard has the following advantages over the other standards:
1. It can be used for making comparative measurement of much higher accuracy.
2. It gives a unit of length which can be produced consistently at any time in all countries.
3. It does not change length.
4. Identical copies of the standard can be kept in all standard laboratories.
5. If destroyed it can easily be replaced.

Accuracy and Precision, introduction to uncertainty in measurement

Fig. 5 Precision & Accuracy

1. Precision is the repeatability of a measuring process or how well identically performed

measurements agree with each other.
2. A precise measurement need not necessarily be accurate what is necessary is that the error in each
case is same.
3. Accuracy is the agreement of the result of measurement with the true value of the dimension being
measured.
4. The difference between the measured value & true value, called error should be very small for an
accurate measurement.
5. In most manufacturing situations it is enough for an instrument to be precise even though it is not
accurate.
6. Designing for too much accuracy is difficulty & costly.
 Fig.6 Distinction between Precision and Accuracy

Errors in Measurement:
Accuracy in measurement is a function of both the accuracy of the equipment used and the care and
technique used in taking the measurements. In spite of all the care making a measurement there is always
a likelihood of the reading being wrong to a small extent due to number of reasons.

Classification of Errors:
Errors in measurement can be broadly classified into three groups:
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error

1. Gross Error:
Gross error or mistakes are person related errors or human mistakes that occur due to causes like:
1. Using a wrong instrument.
2. Faulty setting of the instrument.
3. Mistakes in reading or recording observation.
4. Mistakes in applying a correction
5. Wrong computation & procedure.
It is impossible to correct these errors mathematically because they cannot be estimated. Some of these
errors cannot be easily detected. The only way to avoid these errors are:
1. Taking good care in selecting and setting the instrument and reading and recording the data.
2. Taking number of readings, preferably at different time.

2. Systematic Error:
These errors have definite magnitude & direction & are repeated consistently every time a reading is
repeated. They are generally caused by the following:
1. Zero offset
2. Change in sensitivity
3. Non-linearity.
These errors cannot be detected by taking multiple reading because each time they are repeated in same
magnitude and direction. The only way to detect these errors is to take repeated readings at different times
with different instruments and under different conditions.

Systematic errors are divided into following types

1.Instrument errors.
2. Environment errors
3. Observational errors
4. Operational errors
5. System interaction errors.

Instrument errors:
Instrument errors arises due to following reasons.
1. Inherent fault in the design & manufacture of the instrument.
2. Misuse of the instrument.
3. Loading effect.
Inherent faults in the design and manufacturing of the instrument include finite width of knife edges, too
much friction at sliding surfaces and clearance between mating parts, non uniform division of the scale
and assembly errors like incorrect fitting of parts, zero error, bent or disorder pointer.
Errors due to misuse of instruments related to poor maintenance of instruments, wear of parts due to
excessive use, loosening of joints, lack of calibration etc.
Errors due to loading effect are the errors that occurs when the detector or sensor of the instrument utilizes
the energy of the medium thereby slightly altering the parameters of the measurand.

Environment errors:
Environment errors are the errors caused by pressure, temperature, humidity, dust, vibrations, magnetic or
electrostatic fields external to the measuring device. Typical example of this type of error are change in
dimensions due to change in temperature, pressure variation due to high pressure of surroundings,
radiation effect when an instrument is placed too close to an opening, change in velocity pattern when the
instrument is placed close to fitting etc.

Observational errors:
Observational error are the errors that occur due to carelessness or lack of skill of the observer.
Typical of these errors are:
1. Parallax error.
2. Mistakes in reading the scale.
3. Personal bias or tendency to read too high or too low.
4. Inability to properly estimate the reading between graduations.
5. Impatience in letting a reading stabilizes.
6. Wrong estimation of average reading.

Operational errors:
Operational errors are the errors caused by misuse of instrument & by poor operational techniques.
Examples: Error caused by improper immersion of the bulb of thermometer in the medium whose
temperature is to be measured.
Measurement of flow by placing the flow meter close to a valve, joint or bend.

System interaction errors:

These are errors that occur due to interaction between the instrument used for measurement & the body
whose parameter is to be measured.
Typical example of these types of errors are the change in dimension of a work piece that may occur when
too much pressure is applied between the anvils used for measurement, change in thermal capacity of a
fluid system that may occur when a thermometer is immersed, or change in flow pattern when a rota meter
is introduced to estimates the flow.

3. Random Errors:
Random errors are small accidental errors that often vary in magnitude & direction in an unpredictable
manner. These errors are caused by following:
1. Friction & stickiness of surfaces.
2. Vibrations.
3. Large tolerances between the mating parts.
 4. Hysteresis.
5. Backlash in instruments.
6. Variation in supply power.
7. Elastic deformation of parts.
Random errors follow laws of probability & can be handled by statistical analysis of test data. By
increasing the number of observations, the measurements can be judged more precisely.

Sources of Errors:

1. Instrument error
2. Environmental effects
3. Flexure at contact surfaces
4. Error in alignment
5. Error of reading or parallax error
6. Elastic deformation or support error
7. Placement or contact error
8. Dirt error.
Instrument error:
Instrument error is the error inherent in the instrument due to poor design or manufacture or excessive use.
To be working without error all instruments must be periodically checked (and repaired if necessary)
against standards of measurement.

Environmental effect:
All metal expands or contracts with change in temperature. If reading is taken at at temperature different
from the one at which the work piece is to be used, there may be an error due to thermal effect. Other than
temperature, measurement may also be affected by pressure, humidity, nuclear radiations, vibration, sound
& magnetic field etc. Most measurement standards therefore, specify that calibration of measuring
instruments and gauges be done in a standard specified environmental condition.

Flexure at contact surfaces:

Most measurement set ups involve a certain amount of force between contact points of the measuring
instruments and the surface of the work piece.
When the ends of a measuring instrument or comparator are set by inserting a combination of slip gauges
between the ends, the contact is over a larger area & the contact stresses are low.
When the same instrument is used to measure a round bar of equal diameter, the contact is over a much
smaller area & contact stresses are much higher.
Error of alignment:

The error is based on the Abbe’s principle of alignment which states that the line of measurement of the
component to be measured should coincide with the measuring scale or axis of the measuring instrument.
The errors occur when the work piece being measured with measuring instrument is not held exactly at
right angles to the face of the anvils of the instrument.
It can be shown that true value of thickness t of the work piece& the measured thickness t’ are related by
the equation.
t = t’cosθ – d sinθ

fig. 7 (a) alignment error with scale fig. 7 (b) alignment error with dial gauge

Fig.7 shows two more cases of alignment error when measuring with a scale (a) & dial gauge (b). In both
cases the true value l=l’cos θ. Because of the geometric terms involved in these equations’ alignment
errors are also called as sine & cosine errors or cosine errors.

Error of reading or parallax error:

Parallax error occurs when readings are taken by aligning two lines on the measuring instrument. The
reading taken may be more or less than the actual value depending upon the angle along which the reading
is taken. The error due to parallax falls as the magnification factors of the instrument increases.

Fig.8 Parallax error

Elastic deformation or support error:

Fig.9 Elastic deformation or support error

When a heavy work piece is supported as shown in above fig. it may undergo deflection due to its own
weight. The deflection depends on the dimensions, weight and material of the bar and the distance
between the supports. The error that can occur due to such deflections can be minimized if the distance
between the support is adjusted to 57.7 % of the length of the bar.

Fig.10 Support adjusted to 57.7 % of length

Placement or contact error:

Fig.11 Contact error

Measurement on curved surface like rings, pistons etc. are often found to be erroneous due to the way thee
members contact the measuring instrument as shown in above fig.

Dirt error:
Presence of any dirt particles, contaminants etc. on the surface of the work piece can cause an error. Such
extraneous substance may come from the shop with the test piece or may enter the test room through
doors, windows etc. The Standards Organizations therefore specify the room environment for accurate
measurements to be made.

Limits, fits and tolerances:

Basic Definitions:

 Basic Size/Nominal Size, Actual Size

 Limits (Upper & lower), Tolerance (Shaft & Hole)
 Deviation (Upper, Lower & Fundamental)
Hole-Basis & Shaft Basis System:
 Fig. 12 Shaft and hole base system

Limits and Fits -Definition

• Basic Size: It is the size with reference to which upper or lower limits of size are defined.
• Shaft and Hole: These terms are used to designate all the external and internal features of any
shape and not necessarily cylindrical.
• Hole Designation: By upper case letters from A, B, … Z, Za, Zb, Zc(excluding I, L, O, Q, W and
adding Js, Za, Zb, Zc) -28 nos.
• Shaft Designation: By lower case letters from a, b, … z, za, zb, zc(excluding i, l, o, q, w and
adding js, za, zb, zc) -28 nos.
• Upper Deviation: The algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size (of either hole or
shaft) and the corresponding basic size, like ES, es.
• Lower Deviation: The algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size (of either hole or
shaft) and the corresponding basic size, like EI, ei.
• Fundamental Deviation: It is one of the two deviations which is chosen to define the position of
the tolerance zone.
• Tolerance: The algebraic difference between upper and lower deviations. It is an absolute value.
• Limits of Size: There are two permissible sizes for any particular dimension between which the
actual size lies, maximum and minimum.
 • Basic Shaft and Basic hole: The shafts and holes that have zero fundamental deviations. The basic
hole has zero lower deviation whereas, the basic shaft has zero upper deviation.

Types of Fits:

Fig. 13 Types of fits

Grades of Tolerance:
Grade of Tolerance: It is an indication of the level of accuracy. There are 20 grades of tolerances –IT 01,
IT 0, IT 1 to IT 18

• IT 01 to IT 4 -For production of gauges, plug gauges, measuring instruments

• IT 5 to IT 7 -For fits in precision engineering applications
• IT 8 to IT 11 –For General Engineering
• IT 12 to IT 14 –For Sheet metal working or press working
• IT 15 to IT 18 –For processes like casting, general cutting work
 Fig. 14 Grades of Tolerance

Gauge Design:

 Taylor’s Principle
According to Taylor, ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges should be designed to check maximum and minimum
material limits which are checked as below.
‘Go’ Limit. This designation is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds to the
maximum material limit consideration, i.e. upper limit of a shaft and lower limit of a hole.
‘No Go’ Limit. This designation is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds to the
minimum material condition, i.e. the lower limit of a shaft and the upper limit of a hole
Tolerances in Limit Gauge:

Fig. 15 Tolerance in limit gauges

Limit Gauges:

 They are used only to determine, whether the product size is within specified limits or not
Types of Limit Gauges:

Fig. 16 Plug Gauge

Fig. 17 Snap Gauge Fig. 18 Double ended Snap gauge

Fig. 19 Ring Gauge Fig. 20 Adjustable Snap Gauge

 Fig. 21 Adjustable Thread Ring Gauge Fig.22 Progressive Cylindrical Plug Gauge

Linear and Angular Measuring Instruments and Their Applications:

Linear measuring instruments:

Vernier Caliper: The principle of Vernier is that when two scales or divisions slightly different in size
are used, the difference between them can be utilized to enhance the accuracy of measurement. The
Vernier Caliper essentially consists of two steel rules and these can slide along each other.

Fig.23 Vernier Caliper

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4. Main scale: gives measurements of up to one decimal place (in cm).
5. Main scale: gives measurements in fraction (in inch)
6. Vernier gives measurements up to two decimal places (in cm)
7. Vernier gives measurements in fraction (in inch)

Least country main scale division-vernier scale division.

Least count = value of 1msd/total no. of vsd1 msd = 0.1mm, total no. vsd = 5 therefore LC = 0.02mm t
Suppose 50 vernier scale I division coincide with 49 divisions on main scale, and 1 msd=1 mm. Then 1
VSD = 49/50 of MSD = 49/50 MM. and LC = 1-49/50= 0.02mm.
Alternatively, it is just as easy to read the 13 on the main scale and 42 on the hundredths scale. The correct
measurement being 13.42mm.
1 cm = 10mm

Fig.24 Reading on Vernier Caliper

Vernier Height Gauge:

This is also a sort of a Vernier caliper equipped with a special base back and other attachments which
make the instrument suitable for height measurement. Along with the sliding jaw assembly arrangement is
provided to carry are movable clamp. The upper and the lower surface of the measuring jaw are parallel to
the base so that it can be used for measurement over or under the surface. The vernier height gauge is
merely used to scribe lines of certain distance above surface. However, dial indicator can be attached in
the clamp and many useful measurements can be exactly made as it exactly gives the indication when dial
tip just touches the surfaces. For all these measurements, use of surface plates as datum surface is very
essential.

Fig.25 Vernier height gauge

Micrometer:

Fig.26 Micrometer

The micrometer essentially consists of U-shaped frame. The component to be measured is held between
fixed anvil and movable spindle. The spindle can be moved with the help of thimble. There are two scales
on micrometer, a main scale and a circular scale. The barrel is graduated in unit of 0.5 mm whereas
thimble has got 50 divisions around its periphery. One revolution
of thimble moves 0.5 mm which is the lead of the screw and also the pitch.

Fig.27 Digital Micrometer

Vernier Depth Gauge:

Fig.28 Vernier depth gauge

1) This is similar to Vernier height gauge.

2) It consists of main scale, Vernier scale, jaws, and lock nut fine adjustment screw like vernier caliper as
shown in fig.
3) In Vernier depth gauge, graduated scale can slide through the base and vernier scale remains fixed.
4) The Vernier scale is fixed to the main body of the depth gauge and is read in the same way as vernier
caliper.
5) In vernier depth gauge, graduated scale can slide through the base and vernier scale remains fixed.
6) The main scale provides the datum surface from which the measurements are taken. Vernier depth
gauge is used to measure depth of holes, distance from a plane surface to a projection and recess

Fig.29 Digital Vernier depth gauge

Angular measuring devices:

Protractors
It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles between two faces. It consists of two arms and an
engraved circular scale. The two arms can be set along the faces between which the angle is to be
measured. The body of the instrument is extended to form one of the arms, and this is known as the stock.
It is the fixed part of the protractor and should be perfectly straight. The other arm is in the form of a blade
that rotates in a turret mounted on the body. One of the bodies of the turret carries the divided scale and
the other member carries a Vernier or index. The ordinary protractor measures angles only in degrees and
used for non-precision works. By using angular vernier scale along with it, precision up to 5„S can be
achieved.

Fig.30 Bevel Protractor

Universal Bevel Protractors:

It is an angular measuring instrument capable of measuring angles to within 5 min.

The name universal refers to the capacity of the instrument to be adaptable to a great variety of work
configurations and angular interrelations.
It consists of a base to which a vernier scale is attached. A protractor dial is mounted on the circular
section of the base. The protractor dial is graduated in degrees with every tenth degree numbered
The sliding blade is fitted into this dial; it may be extended to either direction and set at any angle to the
base. The blade and the dial are rotated as a unit.
Fine adjustment are obtained with a small knurled headed pinion that, when turned, engages with a gear
attached to the blade mount. The protractor dial may be locked in any position by means of the dial clamp
nut. Measurement in a universal bevel protractor is made either by embracing the two bounding elements
of the angle or by extraneous referencing, for example, the part and the instrument resting on a surface
plate. The vernier protractor is used to measure an obtuse angle, or an angle greater than 90bit less than
180. An acute angle attachment is fastened to the vernier protractor to measure angles of less than 90. The
main scale is divided into two arcs of 180. Each arc is divided into two quadrants of 90 and has graduation
from 0 to 90 to the left and right of the zero line, with every tenth degree numbered.
The vernier scale is divided into 12 spaces on each side of its zero (total 24). The spacing in the vernier
scale is made in such a way that least count of it corresponds to 1/12th of a degree, which is equal to 5
If the zero on the vernier scale coincides with a line on the main scale, the number of vernier graduations
beyond the zero should be multiplied by 5 and added to the number of full degrees indicated on the
protractor dial.

Fig.31Universal Bevel Protractor

Sine Bar:

A sine bar is made up of a hardened steel beam having a flat upper surface. The bar is mounted on two
cylindrical rollers. These rollers are located in cylindrical grooves specially provided for the purpose. The
axes of the two rollers are parallel to each other. They are also parallel to the upper flat surface at an equal
distance from it.
Unlike bevel protractors sine bars make indirect measurements. The operation of a sine bar is based on
known trigonometric relationship between the sides and the angle of a right-angle triangle. Here,
dimension of two sides determine the size of the third side and of the two acute angles. The accuracy
attainable with this instrument is quite high and the errors in angular measurement are less than 2 seconds
for angle up to 45„a. Generally, right-angled triangle is obtained by using a horizontal and precise flat
plate on which gage blocks are stacked in the direction normal to the plane of the plate.
Sine block itself is not a measuring instrument. It acts as an important link in the angle measuring process.
The actual measurement consists in comparing the plane of the part¡¦stop element to the plane of
supporting surface plate. Mechanical or electronic height gauges are essentially used in the process. It is
specified by the distance between the two centers of two rollers.

Fig.32 Sine Bar

Sine Bars:

It is used for measurement of an angle of a given job or for setting an angle. They are hardened and
precision ground tools for accurate angle setting. It can be used in conjunction with slip gauge set and dial
gauge for measurement of angles and tapers from horizontal surface. As shown in Figure, two accurately
lapped rollers are located at the extreme position. The center to center distance between the rollers or
plugs is available for fixed distance i.e.
l = 100, 200, 250, 300 mm. The diameter of the plugs or roller must be of the same size and the center
distance between them is accurate. The important condition for the sine bar is that the surface of sine bar
must be parallel to the center lines of the plug.
 Fig.33 Sine Bar

Principle of Working:

As shown in Figure the taper angle θ of the job WX YZ is to be measured by the sine bar. The job is
placed over the surface plate. The sine bar is placed over the job with plug o roller of one end of the bar
touching the surface plate. One end of the sine bar is rested on the surface plate and the other end is rested
on the slip gauges

Fig. 34 Measurement by Sine bar

The angle of the job is then first measured by some non-precision instrument, such as bevel protector. That
angle gives the idea of the approximate slip gauges required, at the other end of sine bar. And finally, the exact
number of slip gauges are added equal to height such that, the top most slip gauges touch the lower end of the
roller. The height of the slip gauges required is then measured. Then the taper angle can be measured by
making sine bares a hypotenuse of right-angle triangle and slide gauge as the opposite side of the triangle

h = Height in mm
L = Center distance in mm
Sinθ = Opp / Hyp = (h/ L)
 Fig. 35 Angle measurement by Sine bar

When the size of the job is large having taper then we use slip gauges for the both the side to find the taper
angle of the job.

For a small component, the component or work piece can be placed over a sine bar.
The job is held on the sine bar with some suitable accessories. The dial indicators are provided at the top
position and the reading is taken at A position.
The dial indicator is then moved to the right hand side and the reading is taken at position B. If there is a
difference between reading at position A and B, then the height of the slip gauges is
adjusted until the dial indicator shows the same reading at A and B.
Then the angle is calculated similar to previous method as Sin θ = Opp / Hyp = (h/ L)
Checking of unknown angles:

Fig. 36 Angle measurement by Sine bar

Many a times, angle of a component to be checked is unknown.

In such a case, it is necessary to first find the angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor.
Let the angle be θ. Then the sine bar is set at an angle θ and clamped to an angle plate. Next, the work is
placed on the sine bar and clamped to the angle plate and a dial indicator is set at one end of the work and
moved to the other, and deviation is noted. Again, slip gauges are so adjusted (according to this deviation)
that dial indicator reads zero across the work surface.

Checking of unknown angles of heavy component

Fig. 37 Taper measurement by Sine bar

The height over the rollers can then be measured by a vernier height gauge; using a dial test gauge
mounted on the anvil of height gauge as the fiducial indicator to ensure constant measuring pressure. The
anvil on height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial test gauge showing same reading for the top most
position of rollers of sine bar. Fig. 8.18 shows the use of height gauge for obtaining two readings for either
of the roller of sine bar. The difference of the two readings of height gauge divided by the center distance
of sine bar gives the sine of the angle of the component to be measured. Where greater accuracy is
required, the position of dial test gauge probe can be sensed by adjusting a pile of slip gauges till dial
indicator indicates same- reading over roller of sine bar and the slip gauges.

Advantages of sine bar:

1. It is used for accurate and precise angular measurement.
2. It is available easily.
3. It is cheap.

Disadvantages:
1. The application is limited for a fixed center distance between two plugs or rollers.
2. It is difficult to handle and position the slip gauges.
3. If the angle exceeds 45°, sine bars are impracticable and inaccurate.
4. Large angular error may result due to slight error in sine bar.

Sine Centers:
It is the extension of sine bars where two ends are provided on which centers can be clamped, as shown in
Figure. These are useful for testing of conical work centered at each end, up to 60°. The centers ensure
correct alignment of the work piece. The procedure of setting is the same as for sine bar. The dial
indicator is moved on to the job till the reading is same at the extreme position. The necessary
arrangement is made in the slip gauge height and the angle is calculated as θ = Sin-1 (h/L)

Fig.38 Sine center

Spirit Level:

Spirit level is one of the most commonly used instruments for inspecting the horizontal position of
surfaces and for evaluating the direction and magnitude of minor deviation from that nominal condition. It
essentially consists of a close glass tube of accurate form. It is called as the vial. It is filled almost entirely
with a liquid, leaving a small space for the formation of an air or gas bubble. Generally, low viscosity
fluids, such as ether, alcohol or benzol, are preferred for filling the vial. The liquid due to its greater
specific weight tends to fill the lower portion of the closed space. Upper side of the vial is graduated in
linear units. Inclination of a surface can be known from the deviation of the bubble from its position when
the spirit level is kept in a horizontal plane. Temperature variations in the ambient condition cause both
liquid and vial to expand or contract. Therefore, selection of proper liquid and material for the spirit level
is very important for accurate result. To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made
of a relatively stable casting and are equipped with thermally insulated handles. Figure 6.5 shows a
schematic diagram of a spirit level.

Fig.39 Spirit Level

Sensitivity of the vial used in spirit level is commonly expressed in the following two ways.
Each graduation line representing a specific slope is defined by a tangent relationship, e.g. 0.01 cm per
meter.
An angular value is assigned to the vial length covered by the distance of two adjacent graduation lines,
i.e. the distance moved by the bubble from the zero will correspond the angle directly.

Clinometer:
A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level for measuring, in the vertical plane, the incline
of a surface in relation to the basic horizontal plane, over an extended range. The main functional element
of a clinometer is the sensitive vial mounted on a rotatable disc, which carries a graduated ring with its
horizontal axis supported in the housing of the instrument. The bubble of the vial is in its center position,
when the clinometer is placed on a horizontal surface and the scale of the rotatable disc is at zero position.
If the clinometer is placed on an incline surface, the bubble deviates from the center. It can be brought to
the center by rotating the disc. The rotation of the disc can be read on the scale. It represents the deviation
of the surface over which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane.
A number of commercially available clinometers with various designs are available. They differ in their
sensitivity and measuring accuracy. Sensitivity and measuring accuracy of modern clinometers can be
compared with any other high precision measuring instruments. For shop uses, clinometers with 10„S
graduations are available.

Applications
Two categories of measurement are possible with clinometer. Care must be taken to keep the axis of the
rotatable disc parallel to the hinge line of the incline. The two categories of measurement are:
(i) Measurement of an incline place with respect to a horizontal plane. As discussed earlier, this is done by
placing the instrument on the surface to be measured and rotating graduated disc to produce zero
inclination on the bubble. The scale value of the disc position will be equal to the angle of incline.
(ii) Measurement of the relative position of two mutually inclined surfaces. This is done by placing the
clinometer on each of the surface in turn, and taking the readings with respect to the horizontal. The
difference of both the readings will indicate the angular value of the relative incline.

Fig.40 Clinometer
Angle Comparators:

Angle comparators are the metrological instruments used for finding the difference between two nearly
equal angles. The principle used in angle comparators is same as that of linear comparators. In practice,
they are frequently used in calculating the difference between the angle of working standard gauges or
instruments. It is also used in measuring angle of a number of angle gauges wrung together, or the angle
between two faces of a standard polygon.
The most widely used angle comparators is Autocollimators. They are designed to measure small angles
by comparison. They are quite accurate and can read up to 0.1 seconds, and may be used for distance up to
30 meters. We will discuss the principle and the working of an autocollimator in the following section.

Fig.41 Autocollimator

Principle
The two main principles used in an autocollimator are
(a) the projection and the refraction of a parallel beam of light by a lens, and
(b) the change in direction of a reflected angle on a plane reflecting surface with change in angle of
incidence.
To understand this, let us imagine a converging lens with a point source of light O at its principle focus,
when a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting surface, a part of the beam is absorbed and the other part is
reflected back. If the angle of incidence is zero, i.e. incident rays fall perpendicular to the reflecting
surface, the reflected rays retrace original path.
When the reflecting plane is tilted at certain angle, the total angle through which the light is deflected is
twice the angle through which the mirror is tilted. Thus, alternately, if the incident rays are not at right
angle to the reflecting surface they can be brought to the focal plane of the light sources by tilting the
reflecting plane at an angle half the angle of reflection
(a) Reflector is at 90 the Direction of Rays
Reflector is not at Right Angles to the Direction of the Rays. Now, from the diagram, OO„S = 2ƒá „e f =
x, where f is the focal length of the lens. Thus, by measuring the linear distance x, the inclination of the
reflecting surface ć can be determined. The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance
of the reflector from the lens. If, however, the reflector is moved too long, the reflected ray will then
completely miss the lens and no image will be formed.

Working:

In actual practice, the work surfaces whose inclination is to be obtained forms the reflecting surface and
the displacement x is measured by a precision microscope which is calibrated directly to the values of
inclination ć. The optical system of an autocollimator is shown in Figure 41. The target wires are
illuminated by the electric bulb and act as a source of light since it is not convenient to visualize the
reflected image of a point and then to measure the displacement x precisely.
The image of the illuminated wire after being reflected from the surface being measured is formed in the
same plane as the wire itself.
The eyepiece system containing the micrometer microscope mechanism has a pair of setting lines which
may be used to measure the displacement of the image by setting to the original cross lines and then
moving over to those of the image.
Generally, a calibration is supplied with the instrument. Thus, the angle of inclination of the reflecting
surface per division of the micrometer scale can be directly read.
Autocollimators are quite accurate and can read up to 0.1 seconds, and may be used for distance up to 30
meters.

Optical System of an Autocollimator

Fig. 42 Optical system of Autocollimator

Comparators:

Comparators can give precision measurements, with consistent accuracy by eliminating human error.
They are employed to find out, by how much the dimensions of the given component differ from that of a
known datum. If the indicated difference is small, a suitable magnification device is selected to obtain the
desired accuracy of measurements. It is an indirect type of instrument and used for linear measurement. If
the dimension is less or greater, than the standard, then the difference will be shown on the dial. It gives
only the difference between actual and standard dimension of the workpiece.

Classification:

1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.

2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works by using high pressure air, valves, back
pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using lens, mirrors, light source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier, digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of the above types can give the best result.

Characteristics of Good Comparators:

1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response.
12. It should have less maintenance.
13. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
14. It should be free from backlash and wear.

Mechanical Comparator:

It is self-controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required.

It employs mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring stylus.
The movement is due to the difference between the standard and the actual dimension being checked
The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all the mechanical comparators is by means of
levers, gear trains or combination of these. They are available of different make and each has its own
characteristic.
The various types of mechanical comparators are dial indicator, rack and pinion, sigma comparator,
Johansson Mikrokator.

Dial Indicator:

It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the contact point is
multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the face of the dial by a dial finger.
Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round graduated dial and a contact point connected with
a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face indicates the amount of movement of the contact point.
They are designed for use on a wide range of standard measuring devices such as dial box gauges, portal
dial, hand gauges, dial depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial indicator snap gauge.

Fig.43 Dial Indicator

Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm. The movement mechanism of the instrument is housed in a
metal case for its protection. The large dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to
zero by the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of part.

Requirements of Good Dial Indicator:

1. It should give trouble free and dependable readings over a long period.
2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain constant Over the whole
range.
3. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of the measuring plunger.
4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various sizes and ranges
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction without affecting the accuracy.
6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when the readings are being taken.

Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality, roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism, squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbor’s and to check the parallelism of shaper arm with table
surface or vice.

Johansson Mikrokator:
This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson.
Principle:
It works on the principle of a Button spring, spinning on a loop of string like in the case of Children’s
toys.

Construction:
The method of mechanical magnification is shown in below Figure. It employs a twisted metal strip. Any
pull on the strip causes the center of the strip to rotate. A very light pointer made of glass tube is attached
to the center of the twisted metal strip. The measuring plunger is on the slit washer and transmits its
motion through the bell crank lever to the twisted metal strip. The other end of the twisted metal strip is
fastened to the cantilever strip. The overhanging length of the cantilever strip can be varied to adjust the
magnification of the instrument. The longer the length of the cantilever, the more it will deflect under the
pull of the twisted metal strip and less rotation of the pointer is obtained.

Fig.44 Johansson Mikrokator

When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward direction the bell crank lever turns to the right
hand side. This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change in its length by making it further
twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the center rotates by some amount. Magnification up to 5000 X can
be obtained by this comparator

Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

1. They do not require any external source of energy.

2. These are cheaper and portable.
3. These are of robust construction and compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of energy such air, electricity etc.

Disadvantages:
1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
3. There are number of moving parts which create problems due to friction, and ultimately the accuracy is
less.
4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high inertia.

Mechanical- Optical Comparator:

Principle:
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger movement is magnified: first by
mechanical system and then by optical system.

Construction:
The movement of the plunger is magnified by the mechanical system using a pivoted lever.
From the below figure the mechanical magnification = x2 / x1. High optical magnification is possible with
a small movement of the mirror.
The important factor is that the mirror used is of front reflection type only.
 Fig.45 Mechanical-Optical Comparator

The back-reflection type mirror will give two reflected images as shown in above figure, hence the exact
reflected image cannot be identified.

Advantages:
1. These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving parts, due to this there is less
wear and hence lessfriction.70
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index.
3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any parallax errors.
4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex configuration such as Intricate
grooves, radii or steps.

Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the instrument to a dark
Room in order to take the readings easily.

Sigma Comparator:

The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending plates at the top and bottom
portion. The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is fixed to the bar. The knife
edge is attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the moving block. The knife edge extorts a force
on the moving block through sapphire plate. Moving block is attached to the fixed block with the help of
crossed strips as shown in Figure (b). When the force is applied on the moving block, it will give an
angular deflection. A Y-arm which is attached to the moving block transmits the rotary motion to the
driving drum of radius r. This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.
If, l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge
L = Length of y-arm
R = Driving drum radius
D Length of the pointer
Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)

Fig.46 Sigma Comparator

The back-reflection type mirror will give two reflected images as shown in above fig. hence the exact
reflected image cannot be identified.
Advantages:
1. These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving parts, due to this there is less
wear and hence less friction.
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index.
3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any parallax errors.
4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex configuration such as intricate
grooves, radii or steps.

Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the instrument to a dark room in
order to take the readings easily.

Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):

Principle:

It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by the air flow. Air is supplied at constant
pressure through the orifice and the air escapes in the form of jets through a restricted space which exerts
a back pressure. The variation in the back pressure is then used to find the dimensions of a component.

Working:

The air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure which is equal to Water head H. The excess air
escapes in the form of bubbles. Then the metric amount of air is passed through the orifice at the constant
pressure. Due to restricted area, at A1 position, the back pressure is generated by the head of water
displaced in the manometer tube. To determine the roundness of the job, the job is rotated along the jet
axis, if no variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we can say that the job is perfectly circular at
position A1. Then the same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4, position and variation
in the pressure reading is found out. Also, the diameter is measured at position A1 corresponding to the
portion against two jets and diameter is also measured at various position along the length of the bore.
 Fig.47 Pneumatic Comparator

Any variation in the dimension changes the value of h, e.g. Change in dimension of 0.002 mm changes the
value of h from 3 to 20 mm. Moderate and constant supply pressure is required to have the high sensitivity
of the instrument.

Advantages:
1. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low.
2. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
3. The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X.
4. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
5. Indicating and measuring is done at two different places.
6. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
7. The method is self-cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and this makes the method
ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls.

Disadvantages:
1. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
2. The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being checked.
3. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
4. Auxiliary equipment’s such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are needed.
5. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back pressure is linear,
over only a small range of the orifice size variation.

Electrical Comparators (LVDT):

Electrical comparators give a wide range of advantages. As we know, components like levers, gears, racks
and pinions, activate mechanical devices. The accuracy and life of the instruments are affected as they are
subjected to wear and friction.

Fig.48 Electrical Comparator

Electrical comparators have no moving parts. Thus, a high degree of reliability is expected from these
instruments. Generally, there are two important applications of electrical comparators: 1. Used as
measuring heads 2. Used for electrical gauging heads, to provide usual indication to check the dimensions
within the limits laid down. The first application is very important when there is a requirement for precise
measurement for e.g. Checking or comparison of workshop slip gauges against inspection slip gauges.
The second application is used to indicate with a green light if a dimension is within the limits. A red lamp
indicates an undersized dimension; a yellow lamp indicates an oversize dimension. So, the operator is not
required to be aware of the actual tolerances on the dimension. After setting the instrument correctly, all
that needs to be done is to place the component under the plunger of the gauging head. The signal lamps
provide in standard positive indication of the acceptability of the dimension under test

Advantages:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.

Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be affect due to temperature and humidity.
2. It is not a self-contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply for its operation.
3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter calibration.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator.

Form and Finish Measurement:

Geometric Tolerances

A. Characteristics of Form/Shape
Straightness
It is the characteristic of a line where all the elements of a line are colinear. In general, there could be two
lines, within which, all the points on a line lie.

Fig.49 Definition of Straightness

Flatness:
It is defined as minimum distance between two planes within which all the points on a surface lie. A
surface along which all the points lie along single plane is called as perfectly flat surface.
Circularity:

It is defined for a cylindrical or conical surface. It defines the distance between the surface and its axis.
Ideally, all points on a surface (at a cross-section), should be equidistant from the axis for the cross-
section to be perfectly circular. The tolerance on circularity is defined by two concentric circles within
which a surface can lie. The distance between two the concentric circles is called tolerance.

Cylindricity:
It is defined for a surface of revolution. It defines the distance between the surface and its axis.
Ideally, all points on a surface (of revolution), should be equidistant from the axis for the cross-section to
be perfectly cylindrical. The tolerance on cylindricity is defined by two concentric cylinders within which
a surface can lie. The distance between the two concentric cylinders is called tolerance.
Profile of Line or Surface

It is defined for a line of any shape of surface of any shape. It defines the distance between two lines or
surfaces of the same shape as that of the line or surface in question, separated by a distance equal to
tolerance.

Perpendicularity:
It is defined for a feature (like surface or line) with reference to another feature called reference. It defines
the distance between two lines or surfaces that are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the datum
surface and encompass the line or surface in question.

Perpendicularity of a Line with Surface as datum

Maximum size of the part = Maximum size permitted by the dimensional tolerance (25.020) + geometrical
tolerance (0.01) = 25.03 mm
Minimum size of the part = Minimum size permitted by the dimensional tolerance (24.98) - Geometrical
tolerance (0.01) = 24.97 mm

Perpendicularity of a Surface with Line as a datum

Perpendicularity of a Surface with Surface as a datum

Maximum size of the part = Maximum size permitted by the dimensional tolerance (15.040) + geometrical
tolerance (0.01) = 15.05 mm
Minimum size of the part = Minimum size permitted by the dimensional tolerance (14.96) - Geometrical
tolerance (0.01) = 14.95 mm

Parallelism:
It is defined for a feature (like surface or line) with reference to another feature called reference. It defines
the distance between two lines or surfaces that are parallel to each other and parallel to the datum surface
and encompass the line or surface in question.
Parallelism of a Line with Line as datum:

Parallelism of a Line with Line as a datum:

Max. distance between holes = Max distance permitted by the dimensional tolerance (70.040) + (1/2)
Geometrical tolerance (0.005) = 70.045 mm
Min. distance between holes = Min. distance permitted by the dimensional tolerance (69.96) – (1/2)
Geometrical tolerance (0.005) = 69.955 mm
Parallelism of a Line with Surface as a datum:

Angularity:
It is defined for a feature (like surface or line) with reference to another feature called reference. It defines
the distance between two lines or surfaces that are at an angle to the datum surface and encompass the
line or surface in question.
Position:

It defines the perfect (exact) location of a point, line or a surface in relation to the other datum.

Concentricity:
It defines the position of an axis in relation to the other datum axis. It defines a cylinder which coincides
with the datum axis and of diameter given by the geometrical tolerance.
Run out:

It defines the deviation from the desired form and orientation during one full rotation of the part on the
datum axis.