MODULE

1 PART 1. EARTH SCIENCE

WEEK 1

LESSON 1: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH:

The Universe and the Solar System

I – INTRODUCTION
In this modern age when hi-tech gadgets, machineries, and devises abound, there are
still many basic questions that linger in our mind. In this lesson, discussion will focus on the
existence of the universe: How did the universe originate? Where did life start and originate?
And what is so special and interesting about the universe and the solar system where we
belong?

OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, the learners must be able to:
1. describe the different hypothesis explaining the origin of the universe;
2. explain what the universe is composed of; and
3. describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system.
Lesson Proper
The Universe
Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the universe.

Theories behind the Origin of the Universe

FIRST THEORY
 This theory developed by various scientists and philosophers, about 10 to 20 billion years
ago, matter and energy were compressed and condensed in a hot tiny dense mass.
 In fact, matter and energy back then were theorized as the same and indistinguishable
from each other. But due to random fluctuations, this tiny dense and compact point
exploded tremendously. This explosion is termed as the Big Bang Theory.
 After that massive explosion, dust and portion of the condensed matter and energy
started to spread out. These scattered particles eventually coagulated and different
objects and heavenly bodies began to form. Soon, stars, solar systems, and galaxies
were formed.
SECOND THEORY
 This theory proposed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Herman Bondi et al.
 It states that the universe has been present ever since and therefore has no beginning
and no end, and has been expanding constantly. This theory known as Steady State
Theory or Infinite Universe Theory.
 According to this theory, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains
unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the perfect
cosmological principle.

THIRD THEORY
 The Pulsating Universe combines both the Big Bang and the Big Crunch as part of a cyclical
event.
 This theory says that the universe follows infinite self-sustaining cycles as expanding and
contracting. After the universe has contracted to a certain size, explosion occurs and the
universe will start expanding.
 The theory also states that the universe is “living” and keeps pulsating in and out. The
universe expands at a rapid rate with gravity and inertia and eventually inertia will run
out and gravity will be left and will cause the universe to pull in to itself and create a
“crunch”.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 Our Solar System consists of a central star (the Sun), the nine planets orbiting the
sun, moons, asteroids, comets, meteors, interplanetary gas, dust, and all the “space” in
between them.
 Sun is a yellow medium size star. The nearest star on earth.
 Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion (where hydrogen is converted to helium) within
its core. This energy is released from the sun in the form of heat and light.
 The nine planets of the Solar System are named for Greek and Roman Gods and Goddesses.
 The planets are group as inner/terrestrial and outer/jovian planets.
Inner Planets: Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Outer Planets: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Characteristics of Terrestrial Planets

1) They are made up mostly of rock and metal.
2) They are very heavy.
3) They move slowly in space.
4) They have no rings and few moons (if any).
5) They have a diameter of less than 13,000 km.
Characteristics of Jovian Planets (Gaseous Planets)
1) They are made up mostly of gases (primarily hydrogen & helium).
2) They are very light for their size.
3) They move quickly in space.
4) They have rings and many moons.
5) They have a diameter of less than 48,000 km

Theories on the Origin of the Solar System

 Rene Descartes, in the mid 1600’s, devised a Theory of Vortices which postulated that the
space was entirely filled with matter in various states, whirling about the sun like vortex.
 He explained, once the particles in the chaotic universe began to move, the overall
motion would have been circular because there is no void in nature. So, whenever a
single particle moves, another particle must also move to occupy the space where the
previous particles once was.
 He observed that the orbits of the planets about the sun with the heavier objects
spinning out towards the outside of the vortex and the lighter objects remaining
closer to the center.
 A hundred years after, Immanuel Kant suggested that contraction in the middle of the
rotating cloud appeared and the rest flattened out like disk, using Newton’s idea of
gravity.
 In this “Nebular Hypothesis” on star and planetary formations, he theorized that thin,
dim clouds of dust and gas out in the cosmos would collapse in on themselves under
the force of gravity, causing them to spin to form disk.
 In the year 1700’s. French mathematician named Pierre Simon Laplace proposed a similar
model of a solar system.
 According to his model, known as “Laplace’s Nebular Theory” a slowly rotating nebula
(a cloud of vast gas and dusts) collapsed under gravity forming an oblate spheroid
due to the increase in its spin rate. Contraction and cooling occurred and formed a
lens-like structure leaving detached rings behind, which in the later process collapsed
to form planets condensing in each ring.
 In the mid-1700’s Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon conceived the idea that a
comet collided with the sun sending matter off to form the planets.
 In the middle part of the 20 th century, Harold Urey initially studied the meteorites and
their chemical analysis. He concluded that meteorites contain matter that had changed
very little in the early history of the solar system. His new trends says, the solar system
can be based on its chemical composition.
 The modern model of Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov known as Solar Nebular Disk Model
(SNDM) is widely accepted. According to this model, our star system was formed 4.568
billion years ago when a small part of a giant molecular cloud experienced a gravitational
collapse.
 Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center forming the Sun while the rest
flattened into a protoplanetary disk, out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and
other small solar system bodies formed.
 The solar system that we know today refers to a star and all the space objects that travels
 around it including planets, its natural satellites (moon), comets and asteroids. It is a part
of a spiral galaxy, a very large group of stars that make up the universe known as the
Milky Way with the Sun as its center holding the planets and numerous smaller objects in
its orbit.

ASTEROIDS. Basically a chunk of rock that orbits the sun. Its size can be from a few feet up to
several miles in diameter.
COMET. A cosmic snowball of rocks, dusts, frozen gases that grow tails as it comes nearer to
the sun. It glows due to the heat of the sun causing dust and gases to spit from it leaving trails
behind. It is usually visible in the night sky.
METEORS and METEORITES. Small chunks of debris and rocks in space. A meteor commonly
called “shooting star” falls into the planet’s atmosphere. It leaves a bright trail in the sky which
we usually see. Part of this chunk of rocks and dusts that hits the ground is called meteorite.
PLANETS. Any large heavenly body that revolves around the Sun in the solar system.
MOON. Also called satellite.it is basically solid body. Only a few have atmosphere planetary moons
are formed from discs of gas and dust revolving around the planets in the early solar system.

LESSON 2: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Earth and Earth System

I – INTRODUCTION
From the previous lessons, you were able to identify and differentiate the planets by the
characteristics they exhibited. In this lesson, we will focus our attention on the details of our
home planet – Earth. It encompasses components that interact in a composite manner.

OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, learners must be able to:
1. recognize the uniqueness of earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life;
2. identify the layers of the Earth; and
3. differentiate the layers of the Earth.
LESSON PROPER

EARTH is characterized by its blue waters, rocky brown and green land masses with white
clouds set against a black background. It is only known planet that can support life. Its surface
is covered with 70% water.
Earth Science also known as geoscience, this term used for all sciences related to earth geology,
meteorology, oceanography and etc. Air, water, land and life are the four major systems of Earth.

The Earth’s System

 The biophysical components of the Earth System are often referred to as spheres and
are subdivided into four: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
 In the 19th century, geographer Alexander Von Humboldt postulated the basic concept of
earth system by interpreting its nature.
 In the 20th century, Vladimir Vernadsky saw the function of the biosphere as a
geological force which in return promoted the diversity of life.
 In the mid-1960’s, James lovelock first postulated the regulatory role of the biosphere,
known as the Gaia hypothesis.
 In 1970 Lynn Margulis, an American evolutionary theorist further
developed this. I – The GEOSPHERE
 The geosphere makes up the solid portion of the earth, its structure and land. The
planet’s inner core which extends to the crust, classified as the lithosphere; the upper
mantle and the crust. The lithosphere is the area that mostly affects the earth system.
 Geosphere includes the non-living land features. It is came from the Latin name “Geo”
which means ground.
The Earth’s Crust
 The outermost layer
 Ranging from 5-100 km thick
 Thinnest layer of Earth – less than 1% of the Earth’s mass
 Least Dense
  Temperature ranges from 20°C to 870°C.
 Made of two layers. Top layer is primarily granite. Bottom layer is
primarily basalt. Two types of crust: Continental and Oceanic.
Continental crust Oceanic crust
Makes up Earth’s continents. Makes up the ocean floor.
 Thickest layer of the Earth’s  Not as thick as continental
crust. crust.
 Least Dense.  More dense than
 Composition similar to continental crust.
Granite.  Composition similar to Basalt.

Mantle
 The layer of Earth beneath the crust is called the mantle.
 Approximately 67% of Earth’s mass is found in this layer.
  The top boundary, the MOHO, is made up of solid rock. In the center of the
mantle, the rock is viscous. It flows like syrup.
 Scientists have been able to examine the molten rock from active ocean volcanoes to
gather most information about this layer.
 It is made up mostly of iron and magnesium.
 Temperatures range from 870°C to 2200°C.
Core
 The core extends from the bottom of the mantle to the center of the Earth.
 Approximately 33% of the Earth’s mass.
 This layer is divided into two parts: the liquid outer core and the solid inner core.
 The diameter of Mars is almost the same as the diameter of the Earth’s core.
 The core is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field.
 Temperatures range from 2200°C to 5000°C.

The Mechanical Layers

 The Earth can be divided into five main mechanical layers.
 These five layers are the: Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesosphere, Outer Core, and
Inner Core.
A. The Lithosphere
 The outermost, rigid layer of the Earth.
 Made of two parts: the crust and the Moho (upper solid part of the mantle).
 Divided into pieces called tectonic plates.
B. The Asthenosphere (AT)
 The soft layer of the mantle on which the lithospheric plates move.
 It is made of solid rock like putty that flows very slowly – about the same rate
your fingernail grows.
C. The Mesosphere/Mantle (MY)
 The strong, lower part of the  Extends to the Earth’s core.
mantle.
 The middle layer.
D. Outer Core  Hot, It is approximately 2,270 km
 The outer core extends from the thick.
bottom of the mantle and  It is a liquid.
surrounds the inner core.  It is composed of liquid iron and
E. Inner Core nickel.
 1216 kilometers thick
 Solid (Due to pressure from  Composed of iron.
upper layers.)
II – The Hydrosphere
 The hydrosphere is composed of all the waters on or near the Earth surface. This includes
water on the surface like oceans, rivers, and lakes. It may also be the water in the
underground, in wells and aquifers and may exist even as a moisture in the air which is
visible as clouds and fogs.
 The Earth’s hydrosphere can be in a form of liquid, vapour and ice such as glaciers, ice caps
and ice bergs. This frozen part is called Cryosphere.
 Mostly ninety seven percent (97%) of the Earth’s water is in the form of oceans (salty) and
the rest is fresh water (non-salty). Three-quarters of this fresh water is solid and exists in
the ice sheets.
 Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle called Water Cycle. Water droplets as they
coagulate from clouds, then fall to the Earth in the form of rain or snow. This water
collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. As heat rises, water in it evaporates in the
atmosphere to start the cycle all over again.
III – The Atmosphere
Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into six layers. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with
height until it eventually merges with space.
  The Troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half of the Earth’s
atmosphere. This part of the atmosphere starts at the earth’s surface and extends 8
to 14.5 km high. It is considered the densest among the other parts of the
atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer.
 Above the troposphere is the Stratosphere. It extends up to 50 km high. Many jet
aircraft fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable. Also, the ozone layer
absorbs harmful rays from the Sun.
 The Mesosphere is above the stratosphere and extends to 85 km. Meteors burn up in
the mesosphere.
 The Thermosphere extends up to 600 km above the mesosphere. The thermosphere
is a layer with auroras. It is also where the space shuttle orbits.
 The Ionosphere is the part of our atmosphere where abundant layers of electron,
ionized atoms and molecules occur. It extends from about 48 km above the surface
to the edge of space up to 965 km. this region makes radio communications
possible.
 The atmosphere merges into space in the extremely thin Exosphere. The exosphere
is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of the thermosphere
up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi).
IV – The BIOSPHERE
 The biosphere is termed as the “zone of life”. It is the part of the earth where life
exists.
 It could occupy the oceans, surfaces of the land and can also be in the atmosphere.
It extends from the deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean
trenches, to lush rainforests and high mountainous. The biosphere measures about
20 km from top to bottom where almost all life exists between 500 meters below
the ocean’s surface to about 6 km above sea level.