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Basic Civil1

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29 views5 pages

Basic Civil1

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Sathya
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Elasticity - Hook’s Law:

When a material is loaded within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to
strain.
(or)
Stress = s
Strain = e
Young’s Modulus = E
Stress / Strain = Constant = Young’s modulus.
σ /ε=E

Stress and Strain curve of ductile material:


Ductile Materials:
Ductile materials are those which are capable of having large strains before they are
fractured. Ductile materials can withstand high stress and are also capable of
absorbing large amount of energy before their failure. A ductile material has a large
Percentage of elongation before failure.

Some examples of ductile materials are aluminium, mild steel and some of its alloys
i.e. copper, magnesium, brass, nickel, bronze and many others.

Stress Strain Diagram For Ductile Material:


We have taken annealed mild steel as a ductile material.

Different Points On Stress Strain Curve:


• Proportional Limit (σ PL)
Proportional limit is the point on stress strain curve which shows the highest stress
at which Stress and Strain are linearly proportional to each other where the
proportionality constant is E known as modulus of elasticity. Above this point, stress
is no longer linearly proportional to strain. On stress strain curve, proportional limit is
shown by P. It is denoted by σ PL. For annealed mild steel the limit of proportionality
occurs at 230 MPa. The above graph shows that the length of graph up to
proportional limit (P) is a straight line which means that up to proportional limit
stress is linearly proportional to strain.
• Elastic Limit (σEL)
Elastic limit is the point which shows the maximum stress that can be applied to the
body without resulting in permanent deformation when stress is removed. At elastic
limit when the load is removed from the body, it returns to original size and shape.
At elastic limit stress is no longer linearly proportional to strain. It is denoted by σEL.
For stress strain graph of mild steel, elastic limit is just close to proportional limit.

• Yield point (σY)


Yield point is the point which shows the stress at which a little or no increase in
stress results to large increase in strain that is material continues to deform without
increase in load. At this point the material will have permanent deformation. It is
denoted by σY. For steel, yield point is also just above proportional limit. Yield point
is of two types:

o Upper yield point.


o Lower yield point.

Upper yield point is shown by Y1 and lower yield point is shown by Y2 as in diagram
given below:

Among the common materials, only steel exhibits yield point. For annealed mild
steel, upper yield point occurs at 260 MPa and lower yield point occurs at 230 MPa.

• Ultimate Tensile Strength (σU)


As the stress on material is increased further, the stress and the strain increases
from yield point to a point called ultimate tensile strength (UTS) where stress applied
is maximum. Thus ultimate tensile strength can be defined as the highest stress on
the specimen which it can withstand. For annealed mild steel, ultimate tensile
strength occurs at 400MPa It is denoted by σU.

• Fracture Stress (σF)


After ultimate tensile strength, the applied stress decreases until the stress is
obtained where material fractures called fracture stress. Fracture stress is also
called breaking strength. It is denoted by σF.
Different Regions under Area of Stress Strain Curve:
This is the general diagram of stress strain curve, which elaborates different regions
under stress strain curve.

• Elastic region:
Elastic region is the area under the curve from initial point to elastic limit. In this
region material will return to its original size and shape when load is removed from
the body.

• Plastic region:
Plastic region is the area under curve which starts from elastic limit to fracture point.
Under the area body shows plastic behaviour i.e. when the load is removed from
body, it does not come back to its original size and shape.

• Yielding region:
This region starts from elastic limit to yield point where the body produces strain with
a little or no increase in load.

• Strain Hardening;
Area from upper yield point to ultimate
tensile stress is called strain hardening. Under this area the body will
elongate only with increasing the stress until the stress is at maximum
point whereas the cross sectional area will decrease uniformly.

• Necking:
Necking covers the area from ultimate tensile stress to fracture point. It is the region
where cross sectional area of material will decrease in a localized spot and capacity
of material to carry load will decrease. In necking region, stress strain curve has
neck like curve.
3.3 Construction Materials—Bricks
3.3.1 Introduction
As an engineer, one must know about the materials used in the construction site. All
structures are constructed of materials known as engineering materials or building
materials.
It is necessary for an engineer to be conversant with the properties of such
materials.
The service conditions of buildings demand a wide range of materials with specific
properties. Hence the properties of the materials are to be studied properly to select
suitable building materials. In this section and in the subsequent sections, the
properties
and uses of some building materials, such as bricks, stones, cement, concrete and
steel are
discussed.
The common brick is one of the oldest building materials and it is extensively used
at
present because of its durability, strength, reliability, low cost, etc. Bricks are
obtained by
moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size, then by drying and burning
these
blocks in brick kilns.

3.3.2 Qualities of good Bricks [nov, dec 2010, 2011, 2014; May, June 2013;
apr, May 2015, regulation 2008]
1. Bricks should have perfect edges, well-burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from
cracks with proper rectangular shape and of standard size (19 × 9 × 9 cm).
2. Bricks should give a clear ringing sound when struck with each other.
3. Bricks must be homogeneous and free from voids.
4. The percentage absorption of water by weight should not be greater than 20 per
cent for first-class bricks and 22 per cent for second-class bricks when soaked in
cold water for 24 hours.
5. Bricks should be sufficiently hard, i.e., no nail impression must be present when
scratched. The average weight of bricks should be 3–3.5 kg.
6. Bricks should not break when dropped from a height of 1 m.
7. Bricks should have low thermal conductivity and should be soundproof.
8. Bricks should not show deposits of salts when immersed in water and dried.
9. The minimum crushing strength of bricks must be 3.5 N/mm2.

3.3.3 Classification of Bricks [May, June 2009, 2010, 2014; nov, dec 2010,
2014;apr, May 2015, regulation 2008]

Bricks are classified based on the manufacturing process adopted. The


classification is given as follows:

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