5/17/2024

Week #2
Automotive
Systems

Date Subject, activity, assignment, etc.

Week 1 Introduction to Automotive Engineering.

Week 2 Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Propulsion, and Braking.

Course Week 3 Internal Combustion Engines/Transmission Basics

Week 4 Electric Propulsion Systems.

Schedule Week 5 Power Electronics.

Week 6 Power Sources and Energy Storage, Batteries, Ultracapacitors.

Week 7 Reading Week – No Lecture

Week 8 Midterm Exam

Week 9 MATLAB/SIMULINK for Controls and Simulation

Week 10 Vehicle Simulation and Controls Basics

Week 11 Design and Control Methodology for Automotive Applications

Week 12 Project Work Session

Week 13 Final Project Submission

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Vehicle Dynamics
 Longitudinal Vehicle Model,
 Longitudinal Resistance (Aerodynamic Drag,
Grading Resistance, Rolling Resistance),
 Total Tractive Force,
 Maximum Tractive Effort,
 Vehicle Performance (Maximum Speed,
AGENDA Gradeability),
 Braking Performance,

Vehicle
Dynamics

 Vehicle Dynamics,
 Propulsion, and Braking

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Vehicle System Requirements

The word automotive was coined from Greek autos (self), and Latin
motivus (of motion) to refer to any form of self-powered vehicle.
A motor vehicle, also known as motorized vehicle or automotive vehicle, is
a self-propelled vehicle, commonly wheeled, that does not operate on
rails (such as trains or trams) and is used for the transportation of people or
cargo.
Energy Energy
Source Conversion
A Power plant is the main component in any vehicle design, it provides
the functionality of converting Energy Storage to Machinal power to Move
the vehicle.

Vehicle Propulsion Requirements

A Power plant is the main component in any vehicle design, it provides
the functionality of converting Energy Storage to Machinal power to Move
the vehicle.
Power plant characteristics will determine vehicle performance
characteristics such as acceleration, speed, gradeability limits.
Vehicle operation fundamentals mathematically describe vehicle
behavior based on the general principles of mechanics.
A vehicle is a complex system. To describe its behavior fully, sophisticated
mechanical and mathematical modeling is needed.
In this course we will focus on aspects of vehicle performance, such as
speed, gradeability, acceleration, fuel consumption, and braking
performance.
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Longitudinal Vehicle Model

Vehicles travel on a wide variety of roadways with varied terrain and
directions of travel.
To simplify this motion it is assumed:
 Straight roadway
 Two dimensional movement
Two dimensional vehicle model focused on vehicle performance including
acceleration, speed, gradeability, and braking performance.

Longitudinal Vehicle Model (cont.)

Newton’s 2nd law of motion:
the rate of change of momentum of a body over time is
directly proportional to the force applied, and occurs in the
same direction as the applied force.
For constant mass
d𝐯
∑𝐅 = m = m𝐚
dt

No Motion Motion
V=0 m V≠0

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Longitudinal Vehicle Model (cont.)

𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹
Where:
m –Vehicle Mass
a – Vehicle Acceleration
Ft – Total Tractive Force
Fw – Aerodynamic Drag
Fg – Grading Resistance
Fr – Rolling Resistance

Aerodynamic Resistance
Aerodynamic Drag:
A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting
its motion. This force is referred to as aerodynamic drag. It mainly results
from two components:
 Shape drag (90% of the external aerodynamic drag).
 Skin friction (10% of the external aerodynamic drag).

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Aerodynamic Resistance (cont.)

Aerodynamic Drag: (Shape Drag)
The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it. However, the
air cannot instantaneously move out of the way, and its pressure is thus
increased, resulting in high air pressure. In addition, the air behind the
vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of
the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure.

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Aerodynamic Resistance (cont.)

Aerodynamic Drag: (Shape Drag)
The motion of the vehicle, therefore, creates two zones of pressure that
oppose the motion by pushing (high pressure in front) and pulling it
backward (low pressure at the back), as shown in Figure 2.5. The resulting
force on the vehicle is the shape drag. The term “shape drag” comes
from the fact that this drag is determined by the shape of the vehicle
body.

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Aerodynamic Resistance (cont.)

Aerodynamic Drag: (Skin Friction)
Air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the
vehicle, while air away from the vehicle remains still. In between, air
molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The difference in speed
between two air molecules produces a friction that results in the second
component of aerodynamic drag.

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Aerodynamic Resistance (cont.)

Aerodynamic Drag:
1
Where:
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶 𝑉 + 𝑉
2
Fw – Aerodynamic Drag
ρ – Air Density
A – Frontal Area
Cd – Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient
V – Vehicle Speed
Vw – Wind Speed

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Aerodynamic Resistance (cont.)

Aerodynamic Drag:
1
Where:
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶 𝑉 + 𝑉
2
Fw – Aerodynamic Drag
ρ – Air Density
A – Frontal Area
Cd – Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient
V – Vehicle Speed
Vw – Wind Speed

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Grade Resistance
 When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a
component that is always directed in the downward direction.
 This component either opposes the forward motion (grade climbing) or
helps the forward motion (grade descending).
 Typically uphill operation is of greatest concern as it resists total tractive
force.

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Grade Resistance (cont.)

Grading Resistance Force:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
Where:
Fg – Grading Resistance
m – Vehicle Mass
g – Gravitational Acceleration
 – Road Angle

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Grade Resistance (cont.)

• Road Grade is usually expressed in terms of slope G.
• Usually reported as a percentage.
𝐻 𝐻
𝐺= 𝑜𝑟 𝐺% = ∗ 100
𝐿 𝐿

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Grade Resistance (cont.)

For a relatively small angle of ,
𝐺 = tan 𝛼 = sin(𝛼)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔𝐺

i.e. for a 20% grade Road G = 0.2

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Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance force is a result of the hysteresis of the tire at the contact
patch as it rolls along the roadway. In a stationary tire, the normal force
due to the road balances the force due to the weight of the vehicle
through the contact patch which is in line with the center of the tire.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Due to hysteresis in the deformation of rubber material, the load at
loading is larger than that at unloading at the same deformation.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

When the tire is rolling, the leading half of the contact area is loading, and
the trailing half is unloading. Consequently, the hysteresis causes an
asymmetric distribution of the ground reaction forces.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance on Hard Surface:
The pressure in the leading half of the
contact area is larger than that in the
trailing half. This phenomenon results in the
ground reaction force shifting forward
somewhat.
This forward shifted ground reaction force,
with the normal load acting on the wheel
center, creates a moment that opposes
rolling of the wheel.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance on Soft Surface:
On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is
primarily caused by deformation of the
ground surface. The ground reaction force
almost completely shifts to the leading half.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Force:
Rolling Resistance moment is produced by
the forward shift of the resultant ground
reaction force, and can be expressed as:
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑎
To keep the wheel rolling, a force, F, acting
on the center of the wheel is required to
balance this rolling resistant moment. This
force is expressed as:
𝑇 𝑃𝑎
𝐹= = = 𝑃𝑓
𝑟 𝑟

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Force:
𝑇 𝑃𝑎 𝑎
𝐹= = = 𝑃𝑓 , 𝑓 =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Where:
rd - Effective radius of the tire,
fr - rolling resistance coefficient.
In this way, the rolling resistance moment
can be equivalently replaced by a
horizontal force acting on the wheel
center in the opposite movement direction
of the wheel. This equivalent force is called
rolling resistance
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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Force:
𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑓 cos 𝛼
Where:
Fr – Rolling Resistance
Fz – Normal Load
fr – Rolling Resistance
coefficient
 – Road Angle

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Coefficient (fr):
fr, is a function of the tire material, tire structure, tire temperature, tire
inflation pressure, tread geometry, road roughness, road material, and
presence or absence of liquids on the road.

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Coefficient (fr):
For example, the rolling resistance coefficient of passenger cars on a
concrete road may be calculated from the equation:

.
𝑉
𝑓 =𝑓 +𝑓
100

Where V is the vehicle speed in km/h, and f0 and fs depend on the

inflation pressure of the tire,

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Rolling Resistance (cont.)

Rolling Resistance Coefficient (fr):
In vehicle performance calculations, it is sufficient to consider the rolling
resistance coefficient as a linear function of speed. For the most common
range of inflation pressure, the following equation can be used for a
passenger car on a concrete road:

𝑉
𝑓 = 0.01 1 +
160

Where V is the vehicle speed in km/h. This equation predicts the values of
fr with acceptable accuracy for speeds up to 128 km/h.
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Normal Load
Normal Load (Fz): • How is Fz
𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑓 cos 𝛼 determined?,
• is it a constant or
does it dynamically
change with
vehicle motion?

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
Consider the forces acting on the vehicle body
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹

𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 − 𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
Normal loads can
be determined
by summing the
moments of all
forces about the
tire contact
points.

Taking the summation of moment about rear tire-ground contact area

∑𝑀 = 0
𝐹 𝑙 + 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ + 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0 33

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
Normal loads can be determined by summing the moments of all forces
about the tire contact points.
𝐹 𝑙 + 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ + 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0
𝐹 𝑙 − 𝐹 ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ − 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0

hw, center of application of aerodynamic resistance, hg, gravity center of

the vehicle,

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
For passenger cars, the height of the center of application of
aerodynamic resistance, hw, is assumed to be near the height of the
gravity center of the vehicle, hg
𝐹 𝑙 + 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ + 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0
𝐹 𝑙 − 𝐹 ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ − 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
For passenger cars, the height of the center of application of
aerodynamic resistance, hw, is assumed to be near the height of the
gravity center of the vehicle, hg. Simplify and solve for Fzf and Fzr.
𝐹 𝑙 + 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ + 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0
𝐹 𝑙 − 𝐹 ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ℎ − 𝑚𝑎ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑙 =0

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Normal Load (cont.)

Normal Load (Fz):
𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑚𝑎ℎ
𝐹 =
𝑙
𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝐹 ℎ + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑚𝑎ℎ
𝐹 =
𝑙

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Total Tractive Force

Recall the vehicle longitudinal model,
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝐹

To create vehicle acceleration/motion a tractive force is required,

Vehicle power plant converts stored energy to Mechanical Rotational
power. As such, vehicle tractive force:
𝑇
𝐹 =
𝑟

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Total Tractive Force (cont.)

𝑇
𝐹 =
𝑟
In Vehicle Propulsion, What mechanism is used for this conversion from
Rotational motion to Translational Motion?
What factors affect the efficiency of this conversion process?

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Total Tractive Force (cont.)

Maximum Traction Force:
• Vehicle propulsion is achieved using the tire-ground interaction, this
interaction is a form of friction drive mechanism.
• Efficient Power transmission requires adequate friction between tire and
ground surface.
• The maximum tractive effort that the tire–ground contact can support
(any small amount over this maximum tractive effort will cause the tire to
spin on the ground) is usually described by the product of the normal
load and the coefficient of road adhesion, μ, or referred to as frictional
coefficient.
𝐹 = 𝜇𝐹
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Total Tractive Force (cont.)

Maximum Tractive Effort:
• Tractive effort is proportional to the slip ratio of the tire.
• Slip ratio represents the difference between angular tire speed and
vehicle speed.
• During acceleration:
𝑟 𝜔−𝑉
𝜎=
𝑟 𝜔
Where  Is the slip ratio, rd is the effective tire radius,  is the wheel angular
speed, V is the vehicle speed.

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Total Tractive Force (cont.)

Maximum Tractive Effort:
1

• Slip-friction coefficient characteristics of a 0.8 Normal

tire have a nonlinear relationship and 0.6

depend on road surface conditions.

Wet
0.4
Coefficient of Friction

0.2 Snow

• The Pacejka Tire Model is widely used to 0 Ice

define slip-friction coefficient -0.2

characteristics. -0.4

-0.6

𝜇 = 𝐷. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶. 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵𝜎 − 𝐸 𝐵𝜎 − atan 𝐵𝜎 -0.8

-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Where  is the friction coefficient, B, C, D,

Slip Ratio

and E are the tire coefficients dependent on

road conditions.
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Vehicle Performance
Maximum Speed:
• The maximum speed of a vehicle is the highest constant cruising speed
that the vehicle can achieve at full power on a level road.

What Assumptions could be made

about the vehicle longitudinal model
to find Max Speed?

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Vehicle Performance (cont.)

Maximum Speed:
• The maximum speed of a vehicle is the highest constant cruising speed
that the vehicle can achieve at full power on a level road.
• Since the vehicle acceleration and road gradient are zero at this point,
the equilibrium can be represented as:
𝐹 =𝐹 +𝐹
• Wheel speed is constant, thus the tractive force can be expressed in
terms of the torque applied to the wheels:
𝑇
𝐹 =
𝑟

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Vehicle Performance (cont.)

Maximum Speed:
• Recall rolling resistance force:
𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑓 cos 𝛼
• Recall Aerodynamic drag force:
1
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶 𝑉 + 𝑉
2
• Solve for maximum speed Vmax = ?

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Vehicle Performance (cont.)

Gradebility:
• Gradeability of a vehicle is the maximum gradient, on which the vehicle
can start climbing from stand-still with all the wheels of the vehicle on
the gradient at the time of start.
• The tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can written to include
grade resistant force as:
𝐹 =𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹

• Solve for gradeability G = ?

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Braking Performance
• By transferring kinetic energy into thermal energy through friction
between a rotating surface and a stationary brake pad, the vehicle
speed is decreased.
• Braking force is developed on the interface between the road and tire is
the primary braking force.
• When the braking force is below the tire-road adhesion limit, the braking
force is given by:
Where:
Fb – Braking Force
Tb – Applied Brake Torque
I – Rotating Inertia
an – Angular Deceleration
r – Tire Rolling Radius
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Braking Performance (cont.)

Braking Characteristics of a Two-Axle Vehicle:
• Proper brake balance, %Front/%Rear, is extremely important as
maximum braking deceleration requires all four tires to be brought to the
peak friction level simultaneously.
• Improper brake balance will cause either the front or rear wheels to lock
up prematurely and these stationary wheels will lose cornering traction.

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Braking Performance (cont.)

Braking Characteristics of a Two-Axle Vehicle:
• Braking force is directly proportional to the normal load acting on the
tire, which is proportional to the tire-road adhesion.
• The front and rear tire contact points should once again satisfy the
equilibrium equations for moments:

mg  ha  mg  ha 
Fzf   lr   Fzr   lf  
(l f  lr )  g  (l f  lr )  g 

• The maximum braking force that the tire-road adhesion will support can
easily be determined by multiplying the normal force at the front and
rear wheels by the coefficient of road adhesion, .
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Reminders:
• Please divide in groups of 4-5, send one email
per group to instructor including group
members Full Name, UWindsor Email, and
Student ID.
• Assignment 1 is posted to Brightspace, please
submit before deadline.
Thank You

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THANK YOU

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