A.C.

fundamental:
A time-varying signal repeating itself after regular interval is called as alternating signal. However, in
electrical engineering, the term alternating signal generally refers to alternating voltage or current with a
sinusoidal waveform.

Cycle: A cycle is defined as one complete set of positive and negative values of alternating signal.

Time period (T): Time period is defined as the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one full cycle. It is
denoted by T and its unit is second.
Frequency (f): Frequency is defined as the number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity in one second. It is
denoted by f and its unit is cycles/sec or hertz (Hz.).
Frequency is related to time period by the expression, f = 1/T or T = 1/f .
Amplitude: The amplitude of an alternating quantity is defined as the maximum positive or negative value attained by
the alternating quantity during one cycle.
Angular velocity ( ω ): The angular velocity of an alternating quantity is defined as the angle completed by the
alternating quantity in one second. It is denoted by ω and its unit is radians/sec.
Angular velocity is related to frequency and time period by the expression, ω = 2πf = 2π /T .
The alternating sinusoidal signal shown above can be defined as,
V = Vm sin ωt ; where, Vm is the amplitude and ω is the angular velocity.

Phase: Phase of a point on an alternating waveform is defined as the fraction of a wave cycle (expressed in degrees or
time) that the given point has elapsed relative to an arbitrary reference point.
Phase Difference: Phase difference of two alternating waveforms having same frequency is the difference in phase of
two similar points (e.g. positive or negative maximum values or zero crossovers) of the two waveforms measured with
respect to the same reference point.
From the same figure, it can also be said that V3 is leading V1 by an angle of  or leading V2 by an angle of

(θ +  ) .

1
Root mean square (r.m.s.) value:
The root mean square or rms value of an alternating current/voltage is given by the steady (d.c.)
current/voltage, which when flowing through or applied across a given circuit for a given time produces the same
heat as produced by the alternating current/voltage flowing through or applied across the same circuit for the same
time. The rms value is also termed as effective value.
In instantaneous form, a sinusoidal voltage as shown in the figure is expressed as,
v = Vm sin ωt for its complete cycle i.e. 0  ωt  2 .
So, its rms value can be determined as follows:
2π
1
2π 0
Vrms = v 2 d(ωt)

2π
1
= 
2π 0
Vm2 sin 2 ωt d(ωt)

2π
Vm2
2. 2π 0
= 2sin 2ωt d(ωt)

2π
Vm2
=
4π  (1- cos 2ωt) d(ωt)
0

Vm2  
2π 2π
=   d(ωt) -  cos 2ωt d(ωt) 
4π  0 0 
Vm2
=  (2π - 0) - (sin4π - sin0)
4π
Vm2
=
2
V
= m
2
Average value:
The average value of an electrical current/voltage is given by the steady (d.c.) current/voltage, which when
flowing through or applied across a given circuit for a given time transfers the same charge as transferred by the
electrical current/voltage flowing through or applied across the same circuit for a same time. The average value is
also termed as mean or steady or d.c. value of the electrical quantity (current or voltage).

2
In instantaneous form, a sinusoidal voltage is expressed as,
v = Vm sin ωt for 0  ωt  2
As a sinusoidal voltage has equal positive and negative values with reference to the zero level, its average
value is zero, if the averaging is done for a full cycle i.e. from 0 to 2 . However, if the averaging is done over a half
cycle i.e. from 0 to  , then a non-zero value is obtained in the following manner.

π
1
Vave =  v d(ωt)
π0
π
1
π 0
= Vm sin ωt d(ωt)

Vm
  cos ωt 0
π

π
V
= m  cos 0  cos π 
π
2Vm
=
π
RMS value
Form factor =
Average value
The peak factor of an alternating current or voltage is expressed as below:
Maximum value
Peak factor = .
RMS value
The peak factor is also termed as crest or amplitude factor.
The rms value and average value of a sinusoidal signal is given by,
Vm
RMS value, Vrms = ; where, Vm is the amplitude or peak value of the sinusoidal signal.
2
2Vm
And average value, Vave = .
π
Vm
RMS value 2  π  1.11
So, the Form factor = 
Average value 2V m 2 2
π
Maximum value Vm
and the peak factor = =  2 = 1.414
RMS value Vm
2

3
Q. A voltage source is expressed in the instantaneous form as v = 300 sin (314t - 45o ) volt. Find its rms value,
frequency and phase angle with respect to the reference. Express the voltage in polar and rectangular form.

Ans.

The source voltage, v = 300 sin (314t - 45o ) volt

300
Its rms value =  212.13 V
2
The angular velocity, ω = 314 rad/sec
ω 314
so, the frequency, f =   50 Hz.
2π 2π
And the phase angle with restect to the reference = - 45o
Hence, in polar form the voltage can be expressed as, V = 212.13- 45o V
And in rectangular form the voltage can be expressed as, V = 212.13 cos 45o  212.13 sin 45o V
= 150 - j 150 V

Concept of phasor:
Mathematical operations (like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) of a.c. signals are frequently
required to be carried out for analysis of electrical networks. However, these operations can’t be easily performed if
the a.c. signals (voltage, current etc.) are not in same phase. Therefore, to perform these tasks concept of vector
algebra is used. Here, ac signals are represented by phasors and the phasors are used in a manner similar to vectors
for analyzing a.c. networks. R.M.S. value of the a.c. signal is equal to the length of the phasor and the phase angle of
the ac signal denotes the direction of the phasor considering anticlockwise direction to be positive. However, ac
signals can only be used as phasors, if they are sinusoidal and ac signals of same frequency can only be drawn on the
same phasor diagram.
Let, the sinusoidal signals shown in the figure are expressed as,
v1 = Vm1 sin ωt
v 2 = Vm2 sin (ωt - θ)
v3 = Vm3 sin (ωt +  )

Therefore, phasors of these signals can be drawn as,

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A.C. through pure resistance:
If an alternating voltage, v = Vmsin ωt , applied across a pure resistance R causes a current i through the

circuit, then the relation between the voltage and the current can be expressed as follows:
v i
i=
R
V
= m sin ωt
R
Thus, it is observed that current through pure resistance is always in phase with
v R
applied voltage.
Now, the applied voltage can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
V= 0o
2
Vm
= V0o [where, = V (say)]
2
Similarly, the circuit current can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
I= 0 o
2 .R
V0o V
= [where, m = V ]
R 2
Thus, R is the total opposition offered by pure resistance to the flow of current.

A.C. through pure inductance:

If an alternating voltage, v = Vmsin ωt , applied across a pure inductance L causes a current i through the

circuit, then the relation between the voltage and current can be expressed as follows:

5
 di
v=L i
dt
v
or, i =  L dt
1
L
= Vm sin ωt dt v L
V cos ωt
= - m .
L ω
V
= m sin (ωt - 90o )
ωL
Thus, it is observed that current through pure inductance lags behind the applied voltage by an angle of 90o .
The applied voltage can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
V= 0o
2
Vm
= V0o [where, = V (say)]
2
Similarly, the circuit current can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
I=   90o
2 .ωL
V  90o V
= [where, m = V ]
ωL 2
V0o
=
ωL90o
V0o
= [As j = 190o ]
jωL
V0o
= [where, X L = ωL; This is called as inductive reactance and it's unit is Ohm]
jX L
Thus, total opposition offered to the flow of current by a pure inductor is j X L .

A.C. through pure capacitance:

If an alternating voltage, v = Vmsin ωt , applied across a pure capacitance C causes a current i through the circuit, then

the relation between the voltage and current can be expressed as follows:

6
 dv
i=C i
dt
d
or, i = C (Vmsin ωt)
dt
= ωC.Vm cos ωt
v C
= ωC.Vm sin(ωt + 90 o )
Vm
= sin(ωt + 90o )
1
ωC
Thus, it is observed that current through pure capacitance leads applied voltage by an angle of 90o .
The applied voltage can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
V= 0o
2
Vm
= V0o [where, = V (say)]
2
Similarly, the circuit current can be expressed in polar form as,
Vm
I= 90o
1
2.
ωC
V0o V
= [where, m = V ]
1 2
  90o
ωC
V0o
= [As -j = 1  90o ]
1
-j
ωC
V0o 1
= [where, X C = ; This is called as capacitive reactance and it's unit is Ohm]
-jX C ωC
Thus, total opposition offered to the flow of current by a pure capacitor is - j X C .

A.C. through resistive-inductive (R-L) circuit:

If an alternating voltage, V0o is applied across a R-L circuit, I
then total opposition offered to the flow of current is termed as
impedance and is given by, R
impedance = R + j X L ; where, X L = ωL, ω is the angular velocity. v
L
The unit of impedance is Ohm.

7
Now, impedance = R + j X L
X 
= R 2 +X 2L tan -1  L 
 R 
X 
= Z θ ; where, Z = R 2 +X L2 and θ  tan -1  L 
 R 
V0o V
So, the circuit current, I =  θ.
Z θ Z
Thus, in a resistive-inductive (R-L) circuit, the circuit current (I) always lags behind the applied voltage (V) by an
angle of θ , exact value of which depends on the ratio of X L and R.

If the circuit is purely resistive, then inductive reactance, X L = 0 , Hence, θ = 0 and therefore, the current is in phase

with the voltage.

Again, if the circuit is purely inductive, then resistance, R = 0. So, θ = 90o and therefore, the current lags behind the

voltage by an angle of 90o .

A.C. through resistive-capacitive (R-C) circuit:

If an alternating voltage, V0o is applied across a R-C circuit, I
then total opposition or impedance offered to the flow of current is given by,
1 R
impedance = R - j X C ; Where, X C = , ω is the angular velocity.
ωC v
1 C
impedance = R - j X C ; where, X C = and ω is the angular velocity.
ωC
X 
= R 2 +X C2   tan -1  C 
 R 
X 
= Z   θ ; where, Z = R 2 +X C2 and θ  tan -1  C 
 R 
V0o V
So, the circuit current, I =  θ .
Z θ Z
Thus, in a resistive-capacitive (R - C) circuit, the circuit current (I) always leads the applied voltage (V) by an angle of
θ , exact value of which depends on the ratio of X C and R.

If the circuit is purely resistive, then capacitive reactance, X C = 0 . Hence, θ = 0 and therefore, the current is in

phase with the voltage.

8
Again, if the circuit is purely capacitive, then resistance, R = 0. So, θ = 90o and therefore, the current leads the

voltage by an angle of 90o .

A.C. through R–L-C circuit:

Let, applied voltage = V0o
I
1
Circuit impedance, Z = R + j X L - j X C ; where, X L = ωL, X C = and ω is the angular velocity
ωC
= R + j (X L - X C )
R
=R+jX; where, X = X L - X C
v L
V0o
So, the circuit current, I = .
R+jX C
Here, the phase angle of current depends on relative values of X L and X C .

Case I: If X L > X C ; Then the circuit behaves as an inductive circuit and so the current (I) lags behind the voltage (V).

Case II: If X L < X C ; Then the circuit behaves as an capacitive circuit and so the current (I) leads the voltage (V).

Case III: If X L = X C ; Then the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit in spite of presence of reactive

components. This condition is termed as resonance at which the current (I) is in phase with the voltage (V).

Q. The voltage and current of a circuit is given by,

v = 6 sin (1000t - 40o ) volt and i = 3 sin (1000t +10o ) Amps.
Find the circuit elements.
Ans.

The applied voltage, v = 6 sin (1000t - 40o ) volt

6
In polar form, V = - 40o V
2
The circuit current, i = 3 sin (1000t +10o ) Amps.
3
In polar form, I = 10o A
2
The angular velocity, ω  1000 rad/sec

9
As the current leads the voltage by an angle of (10 o  40 o ), which lies between 0 and 90o ,
the circuit comprises os a resistor and a capacitor.
6
- 40o
Thus, the impedance, Z =R - j X C = 2
3
10o
2
= 2 - 50 o
Therefore, R 2 + X C2 = 2 (1)
X 
and tan 1  C   50o (2)
 R 
Solving (1) and (2) we get, R = 1.285 Ω
and X C = 1.53 Ω
1
or, = 1.53 Ω
ωC
or, C = 653.6 μF.

Impedance triangle: The impedance of a reactive circuit is given by,

Z=R+jX
X 
= Z θ ; where, Z = R 2 +X L2 and θ  tan -1  L 
 R 
Again, the reistance (R) and reactance (X) can be expressed in terms of Z and θ as follows
R = Z cos θ and X = Z sin θ.
These relations between R, X, Z and θ can be expressed by a right angled triangle, which is called as
impedance triangle.

Active & Reactive Power:

Z=R+jX I
X 
= Z θ ; where, Z = R 2 +X L2 and θ  tan -1  L 
+
 R  R Vr
-
10 v +
X
Vx
-
If the circuit current is I, then, I 2 .Z = I 2 .R + j I 2 .X (1)
2
Now, I .R is the actual power loss or power dissipated in the circuit,
which is also termed as real power and it's unit is watt.
This is expressed as P = I 2 .R
Again, I 2 .Z = I. (I.Z) = I.V
This factor is basically a product of applied voltage and circuit current.
Hence, it is termed as apparent power and it's unit is VA (volt -amp).
This is expressed as S = I 2 .Z=V.I
The other factor I 2 .X is termed as reactive power, which only flows in the circuit to establish
electromagnetic or electrostatic field, without contributing an y actual power dissipation in the circuit.
It's unit is VAR (volt-amp-reactive).
This is expressed as Q = I 2 .X
So, from equation 1 S = P + j Q
P
= P 2 + Q 2  tan 1  
Q
 I2 .X 
= P 2 + Q 2  tan 1  2 
 I .R 
X
= P 2 + Q 2  tan 1  
R
= P 2 + Q 2 θ
The powers (P and Q) can also be expressed in terms of S and θ as follows
P = S cos θ = VI cos θ and Q = S sin θ = VI sin θ.
These relations between P, Q, S and θ can be expressed by the following triangle, which is called as power
triangle.

Here the factor cos θ determines the fraction of apparent power, which is actually dissipated in the circuit.
Hence, this factor ( cos θ ) is termed as power factor and the angle θ , which is the phase angle between voltage and
current is termed as power factor angle.

11
Example: For the circuit shown,

The applied voltage, V = 2200 o V I

The resistance, R = 100 
The inductor, L = 200 mH
100 Ohm
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz. 220V
The angular velocity, ω = 2 π f = 314 rad/sec 50 Hz
200 mH
so, the impedance, Z = R + j ωL = 100 + j 314 x 200 x 10 3  118.132 o 
V 2200o
(i) Hence, circuit current, I =   1.863  32 o A
Z 118.132 o

(ii) The circuit power factor = cos 32 o (lag) = 0.85 (lag)

(iii) Here, the apparent power, S = V.I = 220 x 1.863 = 409.86 VA
the actual power, P = V.I. cos 32o = 348.38 watt
the reactive power, Q = V.I. sin 32o  217.2 VAR
Ans. I
Here, supply frequency, f = 50 Hz.
i) So, total impedance of the circuit, 20 Ohm
Z = R + j XL  j XC
j 220V, 0.2 H
= 20  j 2π x 50 x 0.2 -  50 Hz.
2π x 50 x 100 x 10-6 100 uF
 20  j 62.8 - j 31.84  = 36.8657.13o 
ii) Now, supply voltage, V = 220 V
2200o
So, current through the series combination, I = = 5.97  57.13o A
36.8657.13o
iii)Voltage across the resistor = I.R = 5.97 x 20 = 119.4 V
Voltage across the inductor = I.X L = 5.97 x 62.8 = 374.92 V
Voltage across the capacitor = I.X C = 5.97 x 31.84 = 190.1 V
iv) The power factor angle = 57.13o (lag)
The power factor  cos (57.13o ) = 0.54 (lag)
v) The actual power consumed by the circuit, P = 220 x 5.97 x cos (57.13o ) watt
= 709.236 watt
The apparent power, S = 220 x 5.97 = 1313.4 VA.

12
Resonance: An a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance if the applied voltage I
(V) and the resultant current (I) are in same phase, in spite of the presence
of reactive components. R
Series resonant circuit:
Let us consider a series R-L-C circuit, which is supplied with an a.c. supply (V). v L
The impedance of the series circuit is given by,
Z= R + j (X L - X C ) ; C

1
Z= R + j (X L - X C ); where, X L = ωL; inductive reactance and X C = ; capacitive reactance
ωC
Now, the applied voltage (V) and resultant current (I) will be in phase if the reactive part of impedance i.e.
(X L - X C ) equals to zero.

1
or, ωL - =0
ωC
1
or, ωL =
ωC
1
or, ω2 =
LC
1
or, ω =
LC
1
or, f =
2 LC
The frequency, at which this phenomenon occurs is called as resonating frequency and is usually denoted by f r .

Effects of series resonance:

1. The applied voltage (V) and circuit current (I) are in same phase i.e. phase angle between V and I is zero.
2. Power factor is equal to 1.
3. Reactance (X) of circuit is zero
4. The impedance (Z) of the circuit is minimum and Z = R.
5. Current is maximum.

The inductive reactance is given by, X L = 2π.f.L . Thus, inductive reactance ( X L ) vs. frequency (f) plot is a straight

line passing through origin.

1
The capacitive reactance is given by, X C = . So, capacitive reactance ( X C ) vs. frequency (f) plot is a
2π.f.C
rectangular hyperbola.

Therefore, total impedance, Z = R 2 + (X L - X C ) 2 can be plotted against frequency as shown in the figure.

13
At resonant frequency ( f O ), X L = X C . So, circuit impedance becomes purely resistive and power factor is unity.

Now for f < f O , X L < X C . Thus, the circuit impedance becomes capacitive and hence power factor is leading.
And for f > f O , X L > X C . Thus, the circuit impedance becomes inductive and so, power factor is lagging.

Q-factor:
The quality factor or Q-factor is a measure of the relationship between stored energy and rate of energy
dissipation of passive energy storing elements (inductor, capacitor etc.) and thus a figure of merit indicating
their efficiency. This is defined as:
Maximum energy stored
Q-factor = 2π x .
Average energy dissipated per cycle
Q-factor of inductor:
Let an a.c. current , i = I m sinωt is passing through a coil with an inductance of L and internal series

resistance R. So, the Q-factor of the coil is given by, i L R

Maximum energy stored
Q-factor = 2π x
Average energy dissipated per cycle
1 2
LI m
= 2π x 2
2
 Im 
  .R.T
 2
2πf O .L
= [as f O =1/T]
R
ω L
= O [where, ωO  2πf O ; angular velocity at resonant frequency]
R

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