A.C.

Circuits

1
Frequency, f =
T
Angular speed, ω = 2πf
v ab = Vm sin ωt; instantaneous form of a.c. source
 A.C. Circuits

v1 = Vm sin ωt
v1 = Vm1 sin ωt
v 2 = Vm sin (ωt - φ)
v2 = Vm2 sin ωt

v1 = Vm sin ωt
v 2 = Vm sin (ωt -  )
v3 = Vm sin (ωt + θ)
 Root Mean Square (RMS) value

The root mean square or rms value of an alternating current is given

by the steady (d.c.) current, which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

It is the d.c. equivalent of an a.c. quantity in terms of heat production.

The rms value is also termed as the effective value.

 Root Mean Square (RMS) value

i = I m sin ωt

2π 2π
1 1
 
2
RMS value, Irms = i d(ωt) I rms = i 2
d(ωt)
2π 0 2π 0
2π
1

2 2
= I m sin ωt d(ωt)
2π 0
Im
=
2
 Average value

The average value of an electrical current is given by the steady (d.c.)

current, which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
transfers the same charge as transferred by the electrical current
flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

It is the d.c. equivalent of an a.c. quantity in terms of charge transfer.

The average value is also termed as mean or steady or d.c. value.

 Average value

i = I m sin ωt

2π
1
Average value, Iave = 
2π 0
i d(ωt)

Sinusoidal waveforms,
if averaged over a complete cycle then, Iave = 0
π
1 2I m
If averaged over half cycle, then, Iave 
π0 i d(ωt) 
π
 Form factor and Peak factor

RMS value
Form factor =
Average value

Maximum value
Peak or amplitude or crest factor =
RMS value
 Example Prob: Half-wave rectified signal
v = Vm sin ωt for 0  ωt  π
=0 for π  ωt  2π

2π
1
2π
1
Vrms = 
2π 0
v 2
d(ωt) Vave = 
2π 0
v d(ωt)

1  
π 2π
1  2 
π 2π

2π  0
 v d(ωt)   v d(ωt) 
2π  0
 v d(ωt)   v d(ωt)  =
2
=
π  π 
π
1  2
π
 1
  Vm sin ωt d(ωt)
2π  0
=  m V sin 2
ωt d(ωt)  0  2π 0

V Vm
= m =
2 π
 Full-wave rectified signal

v = Vm sin ωt for 0  ωt  π

π
π
1 2 1 Form factor
Vrms =  v d(ωt) Vave =  v d(ωt)
π0 π0 RMS value
π
=
1
π 1 Average value
=  Vm sin ωt d(ωt)

2 2
= V sin ωt d(ωt)
π0
m π0 Vm
V 2Vm 2  1.11
= m = 
2 π 2Vm
π

Maximum value Vm
Peak factor =  = 1.414
RMS value Vm

2
 Concept of Phasor
This technique is used to perform
various mathematical operations (like
addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division) of a.c. signals.
v1 = Vm1 sin ωt
AC quantities are represented by
v 2 = Vm2 sin (ωt - θ)
phasors and the phasors are operated in
a manner similar to vectors. v3 = Vm3 sin (ωt +  )

R.M.S. value of the a.c. signal is equal

to the length of the phasor and the
phase angle of the ac signal denotes its
direction considering anticlockwise
direction to be positive.
A.C. Signals in Instantaneous, Polar and Rectangular form
v = Vm sin (ωt + θ)  Instantaneous form
Vm
V = Vθ ; where, V   Polar form
2
V=A+jB  Rectangular form
where, A = V cos θ (in-phase component)
and B = V sin θ (quadrature component)

V=A+jB  Rectangular form

B
1
= A + B  tan  
2 2
 Polar form
 A
 A.C. through pure Resistance
i
v = Vm sin ωt
Vm Vm
or, V = 0o = V0o [where, = V (say)]
v R 2 2

v Vm
i= = sin ωt
R R
Vm V 0 o
I= 0o =
2 .R R
 A.C. through pure Inductance
i
v = Vm sin ωt di
v=L
Vm dt
V= 0o = V0o v
v L
2 or, i =  L dt
1
=
L  Vm sin ωt dt

V cos ωt
= - m.
L ω
Vm
I=   90o Vm
2.ωL = sin (ωt - 90o )
ωL
V0o
=
ωL90o
V0o
= [As j = 190o and X L = ωL; Inductive reactance]
jX L
 A.C. through pure Capacitance
i
v = Vm sin ωt dv
i=C
Vm dt
V= 0o
2 d
v C = C (Vmsin ωt)
= V0o dt
= ωC.Vm cos ωt
= ωC.Vm sin(ωt + 90o )
Vm
Vm = sin(ωt + 90o )
I= 90o 1
1
2. ωC
ωC
V0o
=
1
  90o
ωC
V0o 1
= [As -j = 1  90o and X C = ; Capacitive reactance]
- jX C ωC
 A.C. voltage across R-L Circuit
I Impedance, Z = R + j X L
X 
= R 2 +X L2 tan -1  L 
R  R 
v  XL 
= Z θ ; where, Z = R +X
2 2
L and θ  tan 
-1

L  R 

V0o V
I=  θ
Z θ Z

In R-L circuit, the current (I) lags behind the voltage (V)
 XL 
by an angle of θ, where, θ = tan  -1
.
 R 
If the circuit is purely resistive, i.e. X L  0, then θ = 0
If the circuit is purely inductive, i.e. R  0, then θ = 90O
 A.C. voltage across R-C Circuit
I Impedance, Z = R - j X C
X 
R = R 2 +X C2   tan -1  C 
 R 
v X 
= Z   θ ; where, Z = R 2 +XC2 and θ  tan -1  C 
C  R 

V0o V
I=  θ
Z θ Z

In R-C circuit, the current leads the voltage (V) by an angle of θ

X 
where, θ = tan -1  C 
 R 
If the circuit is purely resistive, then θ = 0
If the circuit is purely capacitive, then θ = 90O
 A.C. supply across R-L-C Circuit
I 1
Impedance, Z = R + j X L - j X C ; where, X L = ωL, XC =
ωC
R = R + j (X L - X C )
=R+jX; where, X = X L - X C
v L X
= R 2 +X 2 tan -1  
R
C
V0o
I=
R+jX

In R-L-C circuit, phase angle of the current depends on relative values of XL and XC
Case I : If X L > X C , the circuit is inductive. Current (I) lags the voltage (V)
Case II : If X L < X C , the circuit is capacitive. Current (I) leads the voltage (V)
Case III : If X L = X C , the circuit is resistive. Current (I) is in-phase with the voltage (V)
This condition is termed as electrical resonance.
 Numerical Problems
1. For the circuit shown, find (i) I, I1 and I2 .
(ii) Draw the phasor diagram showing V, I, I1 and I 2 .
I 8 Ohm
I1 I2
10 Ohm
j6 Ohm
V=200V
j5 Ohm

2. The voltage and current of a circuit is given by,

v = 6 sin (1000t - 40o ) volt and i = 3 sin (1000t +10o ) Amps.
Find the circuit elements.
 Impedance triangle and Voltage triangle
I
Impedance, Z = R + j X
+
X
R Vr = Zθ; where, Z = R 2 +X2 and θ  tan -1  
R
-
Again, R = Z cosθ and X = Z sinθ
v +
X
Vx
-

I.Z = I.R + j I.X

or, V = VR + j VX ; where, VR = I.R and VX = I.X
V 
= VR2 +VX2  tan 1  X 
 VR 
Again, VR = V cos θ and VX = V sin θ.
 Power triangle
I
+
Impedance, Z = R + j X = Zθ
R Vr I 2 .Z = I 2 .R + j I 2 .X
- or, S = P + jQ
v +
X
Vx where, P = I 2 .R; Actual power loss or power dissipated in the circuit.
- Also termed as real power or true power and it's unit is watt.

S = I 2 .Z = I. (I.Z) = I.V; Product of applied voltage and current.

Termed as apparent power and it's unit is VA (volt-amp).

Q = I 2 .X; Power flow to establish

electromagnetic or electrostatic field.
Termed as Reactive power and
it's unit is VAR (volt-amp-reactive).
 Power triangle
I
+
R Vr
-
v +
X
Vx Q
- S = P + j Q = P 2 + Q2  tan 1  
P
Q X
= S θ; where, S = P 2 + Q2 and θ  tan 1    tan 1  
P R
Again, P = S cos θ = VI cos θ
and Q = S sin θ = VI sin θ.

The factor (cos θ) decides the fraction of apparent power,

which does the actual work and this is termed as power factor
and the angle (θ) is termed as power factor angle.
 Numerical Problem
I
For the circuit shown, determine (i) the circuit current,
(ii) the power factor and (iii) draw the power triangle. 220V
100 Ohm
50 Hz
200 mH
Solution.
V = 2200o V, f = 50 Hz, R = 100 ,
L = 200 mH, ω = 2 π f = 314 rad/sec
Z = R + j ωL = 100 + j 314 x 200 x 103  118.132o 
V 2200o
(i) Circuit current, I =   1.863  32 o
A
Z 118.132 o

(ii) The circuit power factor = cos 32o (lag) = 0.85 (lag)
(iii) Here, the apparent power, S = V.I = 220 x 1.863 = 409.86 VA
the actual power, P = V.I. cos 32o = 348.38 watt
the reactive power, Q = V.I. sin 32o  217.2 VAR
 Electrical Resonance
An a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance if the applied voltage (V) and
the resultant current (I) are in same phase, in spite of the presence of
reactive components. I
Series resonant circuit:
R
1
Z= R + j (X L - X C ); where, X L = ωL and X C =
ωC v L
The applied voltage (V) and
i.e. X L - X C = 0 C
resultant current (I) will be
in phase, if reactive part of 1
or, ωL =
the impedance equals to ωC
zero. 1
or, ω =
LC
1
or, f =
2π LC
 Electrical Resonance
Effects of series resonance:
1. The applied voltage (V) and circuit current (I) are in same phase
2. Power factor is equal to 1.
3. Reactance (X) of circuit is zero
4. The impedance (Z) of the circuit is minimum and Z = R.
5. Current is maximum.

Z= R + j (X L - X C )
1
where, X L = ωL and X C =
ωC
 Electrical Resonance
At resonanting freq (ωO )
V
current, IO = and Power, P = IO2 R
R

I Let at frequencies ω1 and ω2 ,

IO 1
R The current is = and Power = .IO2 R
2 2
ω1 and ω2 are called as half-power or cut-off frequencies.
v L ω1 is the lower cut-off frequency and
C ω2 is the upper cut-off frequency.
The span (ω2  ω1 ) is called the band-width.
 Quality factor or Q-factor
The Q-factor is a measure of the relationship between stored energy
and rate of energy dissipation of passive energy storing elements
(inductor and capacitor ).
Maximum energy stored
Q-factor = 2π x
Average energy dissipated per cycle

Q-factor of inductor: i = I m sinωt

i L R
1 2
LIm
Q-factor = 2π . 2
2
 m 
I
  .R.T
 2
2πf O .L
= [as fO =1/T]
R
ωO L
= [where, ωO  2πfO ; angular velocity at resonant frequency]
R
 Quality factor or Q-factor
Q-factor of Capacitor: i C R

i = I m sinωt

Maximum energy stored

Q-factor = 2π x
Average energy dissipated per cycle
2
1 1  Im 
CVm 2 C.  
2 2 ω
 O C
= 2π x 2
= 2π x 2
 Im   Im 
  .R.T   .R.T
 2  2
2πf O
= 2 [as f O =1/T and ωO  2πf O ]
ωO CR
1
=
ωO CR
 Three Phase System
v r = Vm sin ωt Vm
Vr = 0o
2
v y = Vm sin (ωt - 120o )
V
Vy = m   120o
v b = Vm sin (ωt - 240o ) 2
Vm
Vb =   240o
2

If the amplitude and frequency of all supply

voltages are same and they are phase
displaced from each other by 120 degree, then
the system is called as the Balanced Three
Phase Supply.
 Balanced Three Phase Supply

The three a.c. sources of balanced three phase supply are

inter-connected in two configurations (i) star and (ii) delta.
 Star-connected Three Phase Supply
A star-connected system is formed by joining
similar ends of all phases together and three
line wires are brought out from the other ends.
The star point is called the neutral (N).

If only three line wires are brought out of

the system, then it is called as three phase
three wire system.

If a fourth wire from the neutral is also

brought along with the lines, then the system
is called three phase four wire system.
Star-connected Three Phase Supply
Current flowing through any
phase winding is called the phase
current (Ir, Iy, Ib).
Current flowing through any line is
called the line current (IR, IY, IB).
Voltage induced across any phase
winding is called the phase
voltage (Vrn, Vyn, Vbn).

Voltage between any two lines is

called the line voltage (Vry, Vyb,
In star-connected system, Vbr).
Phase current = Line current
Star-connected Three Phase Supply
Let, VP = Magnitude of Phase voltage
and VL = Magnitude of Line voltage
VRN = VP 0o , VYN = VP   120o ,
VBN = VP   240o
The line voltage:
VRY = VRN - VYN
= VP 0o - VP   120o
= VP [1 - (- 0.5 - j 0.866)]
= 3.VP 30o

Similarly, VYB = 3.VP   90o

VBR = 3.VP   210o
 Star-connected Three Phase Supply

VRY = 3.VP 30o

VYB = 3.VP   90o
Phase voltage sequence: VR - VY - VB - VR  
VBR = 3.VP   210 o
Line voltage sequence: VRY - VYB - VBR -VRY   
In general, IL  IP , VL = 3.VP
Line voltage leads corresponding phase voltage by 30O
Delta-connected Three Phase Supply
A delta-connected system is formed
by joining end terminal of one phase
to the starting terminal of the next
phase and the sequence is followed to
form a closed loop.

Three line wires are brought from the

junctions and thus a three phase three
wire system is formed.
Delta-connected Three Phase Supply
In delta-connected system,
Phase voltage = Line voltage
Let the phase currents are Ir = IP 0o
I y = I P   120o and I b = I P   240o

So, the line current I R = Ir  I y

or, I R = I P 0o - I P   120o
 3 I P 30o

In general, VL  VP , and IL = 3.I P ,

Line current leads corresponding phase current by 30O
 Three Phase Load

If load impedances of all three phases are same in magnitude and phase angle,
i.e. Zr = Z y = Zb  Z θ
then the three phase load is said to be balanced.
Power of Balanced Three Phase Load
For a three-phase load,
VP = Phase voltage
I P = Phase current
θ = load power factor angle
VL = Line voltage
I L  Line current
So, active power of each phase = VP .IP .cos θ watt
Total active power = 3.VP .IP .cos θ watt
Total reactive power = 3.VP .IP .sin θ VAR
Total apparent power = 3.VP .I P VA
 Power of Balanced Three Phase Load
If the load is star-connected, then VL = 3.VP
and IL  IP
Total active power = 3.VP .IP .cos θ = 3 VL .IL .cosθ
Total reactive power = 3.VP .IP .sin θ = 3 VL .IL . sin θ
Total apparent power = 3.VP .IP = 3 VL .IL

If the load is delta-connected, then VL = VP

and IL  3.IP
Total active power = 3.VP .IP .cos θ = 3 VL .IL .cosθ
Total reactive power = 3.VP .IP .sin θ = 3 VL .IL .sin θ
Total apparent power = 3.VP .IP = 3 VL .IL
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