Early Filipino Civilization

For the study of early Filipino civilization, the writings of Antonio de Morga will be used.
Antonio de Morga was a high official in the Spanish government in the Philippines. He was a
member of the royal Audiencia in Manila. At one time he served as acting governor of the
Philippines, 1595-1596. The work which he wrote, under the title Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
(Events in the Philippine Islands), is a narration of events in the Philippines from the first
discoveries by Europeans in the East until his own title. It was published in Mexico in 1609. It
contains Morga’s observations on various aspects of Filipino life.

Geography of the Philippines

The islands of the eastern Ocean Sea, adjacent to farther Asia, belonging to the crown of Espana,
are generally called, by those who navigate thither by way of the demarcation of Castilla and
Castilla's seas and lands of America, "the Western Islands;" for from the time that one leaves
Espana, he sails in the course of the sun from east to west, until he reaches them. For the same
reason they are called "Eastern Islands" by those who sail from west to east by way of
Portuguese India, each of them circumscribing the world by voyaging in opposite directions,
until they meet at these islands, which are numerous and of varying size; they are properly called
Filipinas, and are subject to the crown of Castilla. They lie within the tropic of Cancer, and
extend from twenty-four degrees north latitude to the equinoctial line, which cuts the islands of
Moluco. There are many others on the other side of the line, in the tropic of Capricorn, which
extend for twelve degrees in south latitude. The ancients affirmed that each and all of them were
desert and uninhabitable, but now experience has demonstrated that they deceived themselves;
for good climates, many people, and food and other things necessary for human life are found
there, besides many mines or rich metals, with precious gems and pearls, and animals and plants,
which nature has not stinted. It is impossible to number all the islands---counting larger and
smaller ---of this vast archipelago. Those comprised in the name and government of Filipinas,
number about forty large islands, besides other smaller ones, all consecutive. The chiefest and
best known are Luzon, Mindoro, Tendaya, Capul, Burias, Masbate, Marinduque, Leiti, Camar,
Ybabao, Sebu, Panay, Bohol, Catenduanes, Calamianes, Mindanao, and others of less renown.
The first island conquered and colonized by the Spaniards was Sebu, From there, the conquest
was started and continued in all the neighboring islands. Those islands are inhabited by people,
natives of the same islands, called Vicayas; or by another name, Pintados -- for the more
prominent of the men, from their youth, tattoo their whole bodies, by pricking them wherever
they remarked and then throwing certain black powders over the bleeding surface, the figures
becoming indelible. But, as the chief seat of the government, and the principal Spanish
settlement, was moved to the island of Luzon -- the largest island, and that one nearest and
opposite to Great China and Japon -- I shall treat of it first; for much that will be said. of it is
similar in the others, to each of whose particulars and distinctive details I shall pass in due time.
This island of Luzon extends lengthwise, from the point and head where one enters the Filipinas.
Islands (by the channel of Capul, which lies in thirteen and one-half degrees north latitude) to the
other point in the province of Cagayan, called Cape Bojeador (and located opposite China, in
twenty degrees), more than two hundred leguas. In some parts its width is more constricted than
in others, especially in the middle of the island, where it is so narrow that it is less than thirty
leguas from sea to sea, or from one coast to the other. The whole island is more than four
hundred leguas in circumference.

Inhabitants of the Philippines

The people inhabiting the province of Camarines and almost as far as the provinces of Manila, in
this great island of Luzon, both along the coast and in the interior, are natives of this island, They
are of medium height, with a complexion like stewed quinces; and both men and women are
well-featured. They have very black hair, and thin beards; and are very clever at anything that
they undertake, keen and passionate and of great resolution. All live from their labor and gains in
the field, their fishing, and trade, going from island to island by sea, and from province to
province by land. The natives of the other provinces of this island as far as Cagayan are of the
same nature and disposition, except that it has been learned by tradition that those of Manila and
its vicinity were not natives of this and, but came thither in the past and colonized it; and that
they are Malay natives, and come from other islands and remote provinces The province of
Cagayan is inhabited by natives of the same complexion as the others or the island, although they
are better built, and more valiant and warlike than the others. They wear their hair long and
hanging down the back. They have been in revolt and rebellion twice since the first time when
they were pacified; and there has been plenty to do, on different occasions, in subduing them and
repacifying them. The apparel and clotting of those natives of Luzon before the entrance of the
Spaniards into the country were generally, for the men, certain short collarless garments of
cangan, sewed together in the front, and with short sleeves, and reaching slightly below the
waist; some were blue and others black, while the chiefs had some red ones, called chinanas.
They also wore a strip of colored cloth wrapped about the waist, and passed between the legs, so
that it covered the privy parts, reaching half-way down the thigh; these are called bahaques. They
go with legs bare, feet unshed, and the head uncovered, wrapping a narrow cloth, called potong
just below it, with which they bind the forehead and temples. About their necks they wear gold
necklaces, wrought like spun wax, and with links in our fashion, some larger than others. On
their arms they wear armlets of wrought gold, which they called calombigas, and which are very
large and made in different patterns. Some wear strings of precious stones -- cornelians and
agates; and other blue and white stones, which they esteem highly. They wear around the legs
some strings of these stones, and certain cords, covered with black pitch in many foldings, as
garters. In a province called Zambales, they wear the head shaved from the middle forward, On
the skull they have a hugh lock of loose hair. The women throughout this island wear small
jackets ( sayuelos) with sleeves of the same kinds of cloth and of all colors, called varos. They
wear no shifts, but certain white cotton garments which are wrapped about the waist and fall to
the feet, while other dyed clothes are wrapped about the body, like kirtles, and are very graceful.
The principal women have crimson ones, and some of silk, while others are woven with gold and
adorned with fringe and other ornaments. They wear many gold necklaces about the neck,
calombigas on the wrists, large earrings of wrought gold in the ears, and rings of gold and
precious stones. The black hair is done up in a very graceful knot on the head. Since the
Spaniards came to the country many Indians do not wear bahaques, but wide drawers of the same
cloth and materials, and hats on their heads. The chiefs wear braids of wrought gold containing
many designs, while many of them wear shoes. The chief women also wear beautiful shoes,
many of them having shoes or velvet adorned with gold, and white garments like petticoats. Men
and women, and especially the chief people, are very clean and neat in their persons and
clothing, and of pleasing address and grace. They dress their hair carefully, and regard it as being
more ornamental when it is very black, They wash it with water in which has been boiled the
bark of a tree called gogo. They anoint it with aljonjoli oil, prepared with musk, and other
perfumes. All are very careful of their teeth, which from a very early age they file and render
even, with stones and iron. They dye them a black color, which is lasting, and which preserves
their teeth until they are very old, although it is ugly to look at.
Both men and women, especially the chief, walk slowly and sedately when upon their visits, and
when going through the streets and to the temples; and are accompanied by many slaves, both
male and female, with parasols of silk which they carry to protect them from the sun and rain,
The women walk ahead and their female servants and slaves follow them; behind these walk
their husbands, fathers, or brothers, with their man-servants and slaves. Their ordinary food is
rice pounded in wooden mortars, and cooked -- this is called morisqueta, and is the ordinary
bread of the whole country boiled fish (which is very abundant), the flesh of swine, deer, and
wild buffaloes (which they call carabaos).
They also eat boiled camotes (which are sweet potatoes), beans, quilites, and other vegetables;
all kinds of bananas, guavas, pineapples, custard, apples, many varieties of oranges, and other
varieties of fruits and herbs, with which the country teems. Their drink is a wine made from the
tops of cocoa and nipa palm, of which there is a great abundance. They are grown and tended
like vineyards, although without so much toil and labor. Drawing off the tuba, they distil it, using
for alembics their own little furnaces and utensils, to a greater or less strength, and it becomes
brandy. This is drunk through the islands. It is a wine of the clarity of water, but strong and dry.
If it be used with moderation, it acts as a medicine for the stomach, and is a protection against
humors and all sorts of rheums. Mixed with Spanish wine, it makes a mild liouor, and one very
palatable and healthful.

Ships and Boats

Their ships and boats are of many kinds; for on the rivers and creeks inland they very large
canoes, each made from one log, and others fitted with benches, and made from planks, and built
up on keels, They have vireys and barangays, which are certain quick and light vessels that lie
low in the water, put together with little wooden nails. These are as slender at the stern as at the
bow, and they can hold a number of rowers on both sides, who propel their vessels with
bucceyes or paddles, and with gaones on the outside of the vessel; and they time their rowing to
the accompaniment of some who sing in their language refrains by which they understand
whether to hasten or retard their rowing. Above the rowers is a platform or gangway, built of
bamboo, upon which the fightingmen stand, in order not to interfere with the rowing of the
oarsmen. In accordance with the capacity of the vessels is the number of men on these gangways.
From that place they manage the sail, which is square and made of linen, and hoisted. on a
support or yard made of two thick bamboos, which serves as a mast. When the vessel is large, it
also has a foresail of the same form. Both yards, with their tackle, can be lowered upon the
gangway when the weather is rough. The helmsman are stationed in the stern to steer. It carries
another bamboo framework on the gangway itself; and upon this, when the sun shines hot, or it
rains, they stretch an awning made from some mats, woven from palm-leaves. These are very
bulky and close, and are called cayanes. Thus all the ship and its crew are covered and protected.
There are also other bamboo frameworks for each side of the vessel, which are so long as the
vessel, and securely fastened on. They skim the water, without hindering the rowing, and serve
as a counterpoise, so that the ship cannot overturn nor upset, however heavy the sea, or strong
the wind against the sail. It may happen that the entire hull of these vessels, which have no
decks, may fill with water and remain between wind and water, even until it is destroyed and
broken up, without sinking, because of these counterpoises. These vessels have been used
commonly throughout the islands since olden times. They have other larger vessels called
caracoas, lapis, and tapaques, which are used to carry their merchandise, and which are very
suitable, as they are roomy and draw but little water. They generally drag them ashore every
night, at the mouths of rivers and creeks, among which they always navigate without going into
the open sea or leaving the shore. All the natives can row and manage these boats. Some are so
long that they can carry one hundred rowers on a side and thirty soldiers above to fight. The
boats commonly used are barangays and vireys, which carry a less crew and fighting force. Now
they put many of them together with iron nails instead of the wooden pegs and the joints in the
planks, while the helms and bows have beaks like Castilian boats.

Natural Resources

All these islands are, in many districts, rich in placers and mines of gold, a metal which the
natives dig and work. However, since the advent of the Spaniards in the land, the natives proceed
more slowly in this, and content themselves with what they already possess in jewels and gold
ingots, handed down from antiquity and inherited from their ancestors. This is considerable, for
he must be poor and wretched who has no gold chains, calombigas (bracelets), and earrings.
Some placers and mines are worked at Paraceli in the province of Camarines, where there is a
good gold mixed with copper. This commodity is also traded in the Ylocos for at the rear of this
province, which borders the seacoast, are certain lofty and ruggged mountains which extend as
far as Cagayan. On the slopes of those mountains, in the interior, live many natives, as yet
unsubdued, and among whom no incursion has been made, who are called Ygolotes. These
natives possess rich mines, many of gold and silver mixed. They are wont to dig from them only
the amount necessary for their wants. They descend to certain places to trade this gold (without
completing its refining or preparation), with the Ylocos; there they exchange it for rice, swine,
carabaos, cloth and other things they need. The Ylocos complete its refining and preparation, and
by their medium it is distributed throughout the country. Although an effort has been ma-tie with
these Ygolotes to discover their mines, and how they work them, and their method of working
the metal, nothing definite has been learned, for the Ygolotes fear that the Spaniards will go to
seek them for their gold, and say that they keep the gold better in the earth than in their houses.
There are also many gold mines and placers in the other islands, especially among the Pintados,
on the Botuan River in Mindanao, and in Sebu, where a mine of gold is worked, called Taribon.
If the industry and efforts of the Spaniards were to be converted into the working of the gold, as
much would be obtained from any one of these islands as from those provinces which produce
the most in the world. But since they attend to other means of gain rather than to this, as will be
told in due time, they do not pay the proper attention to this matter.
In some of these islands pearl oysters are found, especially in the Cala~ianes, where some have
been obtained that are large and exceedingly clear and lustrous. Neither is this means of profit
utilized. In all parts, seed pearls are found in the ordinary oysters, and there are oysters as large
as a buckler. From the shells of the latter the natives manufacture beautiful articles. There are
also very large sea turtles in all the islands. Their shells are utilized by the natives, and sold as an
article of commerce to the Chinese and Portuguese, and other nations who go after them and
esteem them highly, because of the beautiful things made from them. On the coasts of any of
these islands are found many small white snail shells, called siguei. The natives gather them and
sell them by measure to the Siamese, Cambodians, Pantanes, and other peoples of the mainland.
It serves there as money, and those nations trade with it, as they do with cacaobeans, in Nueva
Espana. Carabao horns are used as merchandise in trading with China; and deerskins and dye-
wood with Japon. The natives make use of everything in trading with those nations and derive
much profit therefrom. In this island of Luzon, especially in the provinces of Manila, Panpanga,.
Pangasinan, and Ylocos, certain earthenware jars (tibores) are found among the natives. They are
very old, of a brownish color, and not handsome. Some are of medium size, and others are
smaller, and they have certain marks and stamps. The natives are unable to give any explanation
of where o~ when they got them, for now they are not brought to the islands or made there. The
Japanese see them and esteem them, for they have found that the root of a plant called cha (tea) -
which is drunk hot, as a great refreshment and medicine, among the kings and lords of Japon - is
preserved and keeps only in these tibors. These are so highly valued throughout Japon, that they
are regarded as the most precious jewels of their closets and household furniture. A tibor is worth
a great sue, and the Japanese adorn them outside with fine gold beautifully chased, and keep
them in brocade cases. Some tibors are valued and sold for two thousand taes of eleven reals to
the tae or for less, according to the quality of the tibor. It makes no difference if they are cracked
or chipped, for that does not hinder them from holding the tea. The natives of these islands sell
them to the Japanese for the best price possible, and seek them carefully for this profit. However,
few are found now,. because of the assiduity with which the natives have applied themselves to
that search.
Cotton is raised abundantly throughout the islands. It is spun and sold in the skein to the Chinese
and other nations, who come to get it. Cloth of different patterns is also woven from it, and the
natives also trade that. Other clothes, called medrinaques, are woven from the banana leaf.

The islands of Babuytanes consist of many small islands lying of the upper coast of the province
of Cagayan. They are inhabited by natives, whose chief industry consists in going to Cagayan in
their tapaques, with swine, fowls, and other food, and ebony spears, for exchange. The islands
are not assigned as encomiendas, nor is any tribute collected from them. There are no Spaniards
among them, as those natives are of less understanding and less civilized (than the others)..
Accordingly no Christians have been made among them, and they have no justices.
Other islands, called the Catenduanes, lie off the other head of the island of Luzon, opposite the
province of Camarines, in fourteen degrees of north latitude, near the strait of Espiritu Santo.
They are islands densely populated with natives of good disposition, who are all assigned to
Spaniards. They posess instruction and churches, and have an alcaldemayor who administers
justice to them. Most of them cultivate the soil, but some are engaged in goldwashing, and in
trading between various islands, and with the mainland of Luzon, very near those islands.
The Pintados (Bisayans)
South of this district, lie the islands of Bicayas, or as they are also called, Pintados. They are
many in number, thickly populated with natives . Those of most renown are Leite, Ybabao,
Camal" (Samar), Bohol, island of Negros, Sebu, Panay Cuyo, and the Calamianes. All the
natives of these islands, both. men and women, are well-featured, of a good disposition, mid of
better nature,. and more noble in their actions than the inhabitants of the islands of Luzon and its
vicinity.
They differ from them in their hair, which the men wear cut in a cue, like the ancient style in
Espania. Their bodies are tattoed with many designs, but the face is not touched. They wear large
earrings of gold and ivory in their ears, and bracelets of the same; certain scarfs wrapped round
the head, very showy, which resemble turbans, and knotted very gracefully and edged with gold.
They wear also a loose collarless jacket with tight sleeves, whose skirts reach half way down the
leg. These garments are fastened in front and are made of medrinaque and colored silks. They
wear no shirts or drawers, but bahaques (e.o., breech-clouts) of many wrappings, which cover
their privy parts, when they remove their shirts and jackets. The women are good-looking and
graceful. They are very neat, and wallk slowly. Their hair is black, long, and drawn into a knot
on the head. Their robes are wrapped about the waist and fall downward. These are made of all
colors, and they wear collarless jackets of the same material. Both men and women go naked and
without any coverings, and barefoot and with many gold chains, earrings, and wrought bracelets .
The island of Sebu is an island of more than one hundred leguas in circumference. It has
abundance of provisions, and gold mines and placers, and is inhabited by natives.
Beyond it lie other islands, very pleasant and well populated, especially the island of Panay.
Panay is a large island, more than one hundred leguas in circumference, containing many native
settlements. It produces considerable quantities of rice, palm-wine, and all manner of provisions.
It has flourishing and wealthy settlements, on what is called the river of Panay. The chief one is
Oton, which has a bar and port for galleys and ships, shipyards for building large ships, and a
great amount of timber for their construction. There are many natives, who are masters of all
kinds of shipbuildings. Near this island lies an islet eight leguas in circumference, which is
densely populated by natives who are all carpenters. They are excellent workmen, and practice
no other trade or occupation; and, without a single tree of any size on this whole islet, they
practice this art with great ability. From there all the islands are furnished with workmen for
carpentry. The island is called that of the Cagayanes.
After the island of Sebu follow immediately the island of Mindanao, an island of more than three
hundred leguas in circumference, and Jolo, which is small. Lower down is the island of Borneo,
a very large island, more than five hundred leguas in circumference. All of these islands are
densely populated, although that of Borneo is not subdued. Neither is that of Mindanao in
entirety, but only the river of Botuan, Dapitan, and the Province and coast of Caragan.
Below this island Mindanao, before reaching that of Borneo, lie the islands of the Calamianes.
They are very numerous, and consist of islands of various sizes, which are densely inhabited,
with natives; they have some supply of provisions and engage in certain kinds of husbandry.
However the most usual occupation is that of their navigations from island to island in pursuit of
their trading and exchange, and their fisheries; while those who live nearest the island of Borneo
are wont to go on piratical raids and pillage the natives in other islands.

Systems of Writing

The language of all the Pintados and Bicayas is one and the same, by which they understand one
another when talking or when writing with the letter and characters of their own which they
possess. These resemble those of the Arabs. The common manner of writing among the natives
is on leaves of trees, and on bamboo bark. Throughout the islands the bamboo is abundant; it has
huge and misshapen joints, and lower part in a very thick and solid tree.
The language of Luzon and those islands in its vicinity differ widely from that of the Bicayas.
The language of the island of Luzon is not uniform, for the Cagayans have one language and the
Ylocos another. The Zambales have their own particular language, while the Parnpango also
have one different from the others. The inhabitants of the province of Manila, the Tagals, have
their own language, which is very rich and copious. By moans of it one can express elegantly
whichever he wishes, and in many modes and manners. It is not difficult, either to learn or to
pronounce. The natives throughout the islands can write excellently with certain characters,
almost like the Greek or Arabic. These characters are fifteen in all. Three are vowels, which are
used as our five. The consonants number twelve, and each and all of them combine with certain
dots or commas, and so signify whatever one wishes to write, as fluently and easily as is done
with our Spanish alphabet. The method of writing was on bamboo, but is now on paper,
commencing; the lines at the right and running to the left, in the Arabic fashion. Almost all the
natives, both men and women, write in this language. There are very few who do not write it
excellently and correctly. This language of the province of Manila, (i.e., the Tagal) extends
throughout the province of Camarines, and other islands not contiguous to Luzon. There is but
little difference in that spoken in the various districts, except that it is spoken more elegantly in
some provinces than in others.

Houses
The houses and dwellings of all these natives are universally set upon stakes and arigues (i,e.,
columns) high above the ground. Their rooms are small and the roofs low.
They are built and tiled with wood and bamboos, and covered and roofed with nipa-palm leaves.
Each house is separate, and is not built adjoining another. In the lower part are enclosures made
by stakes and bamboos, where their fowls and cattles are reared, and the rice pounded and
cleaned. One ascends into the houses by means of ladders that can be drawn up, which are made
from two bamboos, Above are their open batalanes (galeries) used for household duties; the
parents and (grown) children live together. There is little adornment and finery in the houses,
which are called bahandin. Besides these houses, which are those of the common people and
those of less importance, there are the chiefs' houses. They are built upon trees and thick arigues,
with many rooms and comforts. They are well constructed of timber and planks, and are strong
and large. They are furnished and supplied with all that is necessary, and are much finer and
more substantial than the others. They are roofed, however, as are the others, with the palm-
leaves called nipa. Those keep out the water and the sum more than do shingles or tiles, although
the danger from fires is greater.
The natives do not inhabit the lower part of their houses, because they raise their fowls and cattle
there, and because of the damp and heat of the earth, and the many rats, which are enormous and
destructive both in the houses and sowed fields; and because, as their houses are generally built
on sea shore, or on the banks of rivers and creeks, the waters baths the lower parts, and the latter
are consequently left open. ·

Government

There were no kings or lords throughout these islands who ruled over them as in the manner of
our kingdoms and provinces; but in every island and in each province of it, many chiefs were
recognized by the natives themselves. Some -were more powerful than others, and each one had
his followers and subjects, by districts and families; and those obeyed and respected the chief.
Some chiefs had friendship and communication with others, and at times wars and quarrels.
These principalities and lordship were inherited in the male line and by succession of father and
son and their descendants. If these ,were lucking, then their brothers and collateral relatives
succeeded. Their duty was to rule and govern their subjects and followers, and to assist them in
their interests and necessities. What the chiefs received from their followers was to be held by
them in great veneration and respect; and they were served in their wars, and voyages, and in
their tilling, sowing, fishing, and the building of their houses. To these duties the natives
attended very promptly, whenever summoned by their chief. They also paid the chief’s tribute
( which they called buiz), in varrying quantities in the crops that they gathered. The descendants
of such chiefs, and

their relatives, even though they did not inherit the lordship, were held in the same respect and
consideration. Such were all regarded as nobles, and as persons exempt from the services
rendered by the others, or the plebians, who were called timaguas. The same right of nobility and
chieftainship was preserved for the women, just as for the men. When any of these chiefs was
more courageous than others in war and upon other occasions,-such a one enjoyed more
followers and men; and the others were under his leadership, even if they were chiefs. These
latter retained to themselves the lordship nnd particular government of their own following,
which is called barangai among them. They had datos and other special leaders (mandadores)
who attended to the interests of the barangay.
When some natives had suits or disputes with others over matters of property and interest, or
over personal injuries and wrongs received, they appointed old men of the same district, to try
them, the parties being present. If they had to present proofs, they brought their witnesses there,
and the case was immediately judged according to what was found, according to the usages, of
their ancestors on like occasions; and that sentence was observed and executed without any
further objection or delay. The natives' laws throughout the islands were made in the same
manner, and they followed the traditions and customs of their ancestors, without anything being
written. Some provinces had different customs than others in some respects, However, they
agreed in most, and in all the islands generally the same usages were followed.

Social Classes

There are three conditions of persons among the natives of the islands, and into which their
government is divided; the chiefs, of whom we have already treated; the timaguas, who are
equivalent to plebeians; and slaves, those of both chiefs and timaguas. The slaves were of several
classes. Some were for all kinds of works and slavery, like those which we ourselves hold. Such
nare called Saguiguilires; they served inside the house, as did likewise the children born of them.
There are others who live in their own houses with their families, outside the house of their lord;
and come, at the season, to aid him in his sowings and harvests, among his rowers when he
embarks, in the construction of his house when it is being built, and to serve in his house when
there are guests of distinction. These are bound to come to their lord's house whenever be
summons them, and to serve in these offices without any pay or stipend. These slaves are called
namamahays, and their children and descendants are slaves of the same class. From these slaves-
saguiguilires and namamahays – are issue, some of whom are whole slaves, some of whom are
half slaves, and still others one-fourth slaves. It happens thus if either the father or the mother
was free, and they had an only child, he was half free and half slave. If they had more than one
child, they were divided as follows: the first follows the condition of the .father, free or slave; the
second that of the mother. If there were an odd number of children, the last was half free and half
slave. Those who descended from these, if children of a free Mother or father, were only one
fourth slaves, because of being children of a free father or mother and of a half slave. These half
slaves or one-fourth slaves, whether saguiguilirs or namamahays, served their masters during
every other noon; and in this respect so is such condition slavery.
In the same way, it may happen in divisions between heirs that n slave will fall to several, and
serves each one for the time that is due him. When the slave is not wholly slave, but half or
fourth, he has the right, because of that part that is free, to compel his master to emancipate him
for a just price. This price is appraised and resulted for persons according to the quality of their
slavery, whether it be saguiguilir or namamahay, half slave or quarter slave. But, if he is wholly
slave the master cannot be compelled to ransom or emancipate him for any price.
The usual price of a sauiguilir slave among the native is, at most generally ten taes of gold, or
eighty pesos; if he is namamahay, half of that sum. The others are in the same proportion, taking
into consideration the person and his age. No fixed beginning can be assigned as the origin of
these kinds of slavery among these natives, because all the slaves are natives of the islands, and
not strangers. It is thought that they were made in their wars and quarrels. Thu most certain
knowledge is that the most powerful made the others slave and seized then for slight cause or
occasion, and many times for loans and usurious contracts which were current among them. The
interest, capital, and debt, increased so much with delay that the borrowers become slaves.
Consequently all these slaveries have violent and unjust beginnings; and most of the suits among
the natives are over these, and they occupy the judges in the exterior court with them, and their
confessors in that of conscience.
These slaves comprise the greatest wealth and capital of the natives of these islands, for they are
very useful to them and necessary for the cultivation of their property. They are sold, traded, and
exchanged among them, just as any other mercantile article, from one village to another, from
one province to another, and likewise from one island to another. Therefore, and to avoid so
many suits as would occur if these slaveries were examined, and their origin and source
ascertained, they are preserved and held as they were formerly.

Marriage Customs

The marriages of these natives, commonly and generally were, and are; Chiefs with women
chief; timaguas with those of that rank; and slaves with those of their own class. But sometimes
these classes intermarry with one another. They considered one woman whom they married as
legitimate wife and the mistress of the house; and she was styled ynasaba. Those whom they kept
besides her they considered as friends. The children of the first were regarded as legitimate and
whole heirs of their parents; the children of the others were not so regarded, and were left
something by assignment, but they did not inherit.

The dowry was furnished by the man, being given by his parents. The wife furnished nothing for
the marriage, until she had inherited it from her parents. The solemnity of the marriage consisted
in nothing more than the agreement between the parents and relatives of the contracting parties'
the payment of the dowry agreed upon to the father of the bride, and the assembling at the wife
parents' house of all the relatives, to eat and drink until they would fall down. At night the man
took the woman to his house and into his power, and there she remained. These marriages were
annulled and dissolved for slight cause, with the examination and judgement of the relatives of
both parties, and of the old men, who acted as mediators in the affairs. At such a time the man
took the dowry which they call vigadicaya, unless it happened that they separated through the
husband's fault; for then it was not returned to him, and the wife's parents kept it. The property
that they had acquired together was divided into halves, and each one disposed of his own. If one
made any profits in which the other did not have a share or participate, he acquired it for himself
alone.

Status of Children- Inheritance

The Indians were adopted one by another, in presence of the relatives. The adopted person gave
and delivered all his actual possessions to the one who adopted him. Thereupon he remained in
his house and care, and has a right to inherit with the other children. Adulteries were not
punishable corporally. If the adulterer paid the aggrieved party the amount adjudged by the old
men and agreed upon by them, then the injury was pardoned, and the husband was appeased and
retained his honor, He would still live with his wife and there would be no further talk about the
matter.

In inheritances all the legitimate children inherited equally from their parents whatever property
they had acquired. If there were any movable or landed property which they had received from
their parents, such went to the nearest relatives and the collateral side o; that stock, if there were
no legitimate children by an ynasaba. This was the case either with or without a will. In the act of
drawing a will, there was no further

ceremony than to have written it or to have stated it orally before acquaintances. If any chief was
lord of a barangai, then in that case, the eldest sons of any ynasaba succeeded him, If he died, the
second son succeeded. If there were no sons, then, the daughters succeeded in the same order. If
there were no legitimate successors, the succession went to the nearest relative belonging to the
lineage and relationship of the chief who had been the last possessor of it.

If any native who had slave women made concubines of any of them, and such slave woman had
children, those children were free, as was the slave. But if she had no children, she remained a
slave.

These children, by a slave woman, and those borned by a married woman, were regarded as
illlegitimate, and did not succeed to the inheritance with the other children, neither were the
parents obliged to leave them anything. Even if they were the sons of chiefs, they aid not succeed
to the nobility or chieftainship of the parents, nor to their privileges, but they remained and were
reckoned as plebeians and in the number and rank of the other timaguas.

Trading Methods and Practices

The contracts and negotiations of these natives were generally illegal, each one paying attention
to how he might better his own business and interest.
Loans with interest are very common and much practiced, and the interests incurred was
excessive. The debt doubled and increased all the time while payment was delayed, until it
stripped the debtor of all his possessions, and he and his children when all their property was
gone, became slaves.
Their customary method of trading was by bartering one thing for/ another, such as food, cloth,
cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields, slaves, fishing grounds, and palm-trees (both nipa and wild).
Sometimes a price intervened, which was paid in gold, as agreed upon, or in metal bells brought
from China. These bells they regard as precious jewels; they resemble large pans and are very
sonorous. They play upon these at their feasts, and carry them to the war in their boats instead of
drums and other instruments. There are often delays and terms for certain payments, and
bondsmen who intervene bind themselves, but always with very usurious and excessive profits
and interests.

Crimes

Crimes were punished by request of the aggrieved parties. Especially were thefts punished with
greater severity, the robbers being enslaved or sometimes put to death. The same was true of
insulting words, especially when spoken to chiefs. They had among themselves many
expressions and words which they regarded as the highest insult, when said to men. These were-
pardoned less willingly and with greater difficulty than was personal violence, such as wounding
and assaulting.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

In matters of rebellion, the natives proceeded more barbarously and with greater blindness than
in all the rest. For besides being pagans, without any knowledge of the true God, they neither
strove to discover Him by way of reason, nor had any fixed belief. The devil usually deceived
them with a thousand errors and blindness. He appeared to them in various horrible and frightful
forms, and as fierce animals, so that they feared him and trembled before him. They generally
worshipped him, and made images of him in the said forms. These were kept in caves and
private houses, where they offered th0m perfumes and odors, and food and fruit, calling them
anitos. Others worshipped the sun and the moon and made feasts and drunken revels at the
conjunction of these bodies. Some worshipped a yellow-colored bird that dwells in their woods,
called batala. They generally worship and adore the crocodile when they see them, by kneeling
down and clasping their hands, because of the harm that they received from those reptiles; they
believe that by so doing the crocodiles will become appeased and leave them. Their oaths,
execrations, and promises are all as above mentioned, namely: May buhayan eat thee, if thou
dost not speak truth, or fulfill what thou hast promised,” and similar things.
There were no temples throughout those islands, nor houses generally used for the worship of
idols; but each person possessed and made his house own anitos, without any fixed rite or
ceremony. They had no priests or religious to attend to religious affairs, except certain old men
and women called catalonas. These were experienced witches and sorcerers, who kept the other
people deceived. The latter communicated to these sorcerers their desires and needs, and the
catalonas told them innumerable extravagancies and lies. The catalonas uttered prayers and
performed other ceremonies to the idols for the sick; and they believed in omens and
superstitions, with witch the devil inspired them, whereby they declared whether the patient
would recover or die. Such were their cures and methods, and they used various kinds of
divinations for all things. All this was with so little aid, apparatus, or foundation—which God
permitted, so that the preaching of the holy gospel should find those of that region better
prepared for it, and so that those natives would confess the truth more easily, and it, and would
be less difficult to withdraw them from their darkness, and the errors in which the devil kept
them for so many years. They never sacrificed human beings as is done in other kingdoms. They
believed that there was a future life where those who had been brave and performed valiant feats
would be rewarded; while those who had done evil would be punished. But they did not know
how or where this would be
1. How will technological tools for teaching and learning promote the salient features of the
K to 12 Curriculum?
2. What are the 21st Century skills that are highly required to be developed by your field of
specialization? Rank them in terms of the identified standards and competencies of your
curriculum guide.