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Lecture 2 AI

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8 views

Lecture 2 AI

Uploaded by

saadalhemiary
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture 2

Solving Problems by
Searching

AI
Well-defined problems and solutions
A problem is defined by 5 components:
Initial state
Actions
Transition model or
(Successor functions)
Goal Test.
Path Cost.
Well-defined problems and solutions
A problem is defined by 4 components:
 The initial state
 that the agent starts in
 The set of possible actions
 Transition model: description of what each action
does.
(successor functions): refer to any state reachable from
given state by a single action
 Initial state, actions and Transition model define the
state space
 the set of all states reachable from the initial state by any
sequence of actions.
 A path in the state space:
 any sequence of states connected by a sequence of actions.
The 8-puzzle
The 8-puzzle
States:
 a state description specifies the location of each of
the eight tiles and blank in one of the nine squares
Initial State:
 Any state in state space
Successor function:
 the blank moves Left, Right, Up, or Down
Goal test:
 current state matches the goal configuration
Path cost:
 each step costs 1, so the path cost is just the length
of the path
Searching For Solutions
Tree search example
Node selected
for expansion.
Nodes added to tree.
Selected for expansion.

Added to tree.

Note: Arad added (again) to tree!


(reachable from Sibiu)

Not necessarily a problem, but


in Graph-Search, we will avoid
this by maintaining an
“explored” list.
Uninformed Search Strategies
Uninformed strategies use only the
information available in the problem definition
 Also known as blind searching

Breadth-first search
Depth-first search
Depth-limited search
Iterative deepening search
Uniform-cost search
10
Comparing Uninformed Search
Strategies
Completeness
 Will a solution always be found if one exists?
Time
 How long does it take to find the solution?
 Often represented as the number of nodes searched
Space
 How much memory is needed to perform the search?
 Often represented as the maximum number of nodes stored
at once
Optimal
 Will the optimal (least cost) solution be found?

11
Comparing Uninformed Search
Strategies
Time and space complexity are
measured in
 b – maximum branching factor of the
search tree
 d – depth of the least cost solution

 m – maximum depth of the state space


Breadth-First Search
Recall from Data Structures the basic
algorithm for a breadth-first search on a
graph or tree

Expand the shallowest unexpanded node

Place all new successors at the end of a


FIFO queue
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Breadth-First Search
Properties of Breadth-First
Search
Complete
 Yes if b (max branching factor) is finite
Time
 1 + b + b2 + … + bd + b(bd-1) = O(bd+1)
 exponential in d
Space
 O(bd+1)
 Keeps every node in memory
 This is the big problem;
Optimal
 Yes (if cost is 1 per step); not optimal in general
Depth-First Search
Recall from Data Structures the basic
algorithm for a depth-first search on a
graph or tree

Expand the deepest unexpanded node

Unexplored successors are placed on a


stack until fully explored
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Depth-First Search
Properties of Depth-First Search
Complete
 No: fails in infinite-depth spaces, spaces with loops
 Modify to avoid repeated spaces along path
 Yes: in finite spaces
Time
 O(bm)
 Not great if m is much larger than d
 But if the solutions are dense, this may be faster than
breadth-first search
Space
 O(bm)…linear space
Optimal
 No
Depth-First Search Graph --> Tree
a G
b c
e
d f
S h
p q r

d e p

b c e h r q

a a h r p q f

p q f q c G

q c G a

a
Iterative Deepening Search

Iterative deepening depth-first search


 Uses depth-first search
 Finds the best depth limit
 Gradually increases the depth limit; 0, 1, 2, …
until a goal is found
Iterative Deepening Search
Iterative Deepening Search
Iterative Deepening Search
Iterative Deepening Search
Properties of iterative deepening search

Complete
 Yes
Time
 O(bd)
Space
 O(bd)
Optimal
 Yes if step cost = 1
 Can be modified to explore uniform cost tree
Uniform cost search
Breadth-first finds the shallowest goal state
 but not necessarily be the least-cost solution
 work only if all step costs are equal

Uniform cost search


 modifies breadth-first strategy
 by always expanding the lowest-cost node
 The lowest-cost node is measured by the path
cost g(n)
Uniform Cost Search
2 a G
Strategy: expand a b c
1 8
cheapest node first: 2 e 2 2
3 d f
Fringe is a priority 9
S h 8
queue (priority: 1
cumulative cost) 1p q r
15

S 0

d 3 e 9 p 1

b 4c e 5 h 1r 1 q 1
1 7 1 6
Cost a 6 a 1h 1 r 7 p q f
contou 3
rs p q f 8 q c G

q 1c G 1 a
1 0
a
End …

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