Introduction to Physical

Design of Transportation
Facilities

Highway Engineering & Design

Prof. TALEB M. AL-ROUSAN

Source: Chapter 2/ Traffic & Highway Engineering

(4th Edition, 2009) by Nicholas Garber and Lester Hoel
 The Design Process
 Many ways available to describe the design
process of transportation facilities.
 Overall process of developing a transportation
project is a mixture of technical, legal, and
political elements.
 It must balance interests of: users, residents in
the vicinity of the project, and general public.
 Laws, policies, and regulations are intended to
ensure that the resulting facilities:
 Safe.
 Economical.
 Planning & Design
 Both involve use of rational process to decide
how to use available resources to achieve
goals.
 Planning: refers to the more general and
abstract parts of the process.
 Design: refers to the more detailed and
concrete.
 The overall design process is a coordinated
process of information gathering, analysis,
and decision making.
 It is open ended (i.e. there is no one right
answer, but some answers may be better in
serving particular goals.)
 Steps in Design Process/
Planning
1- Decide what sort of system or facility is
needed (highway, station, airport, …etc).
 Responsibility of transportation planning
officials and political system.
 Design engineers are key participants.
 Intelligent decision depends on the ability to
predict cost and impact which depends on
preliminary design.
Decisions at this point also depend on:
2- Transportation demand analysis for
alternative facilities or systems.
 Attempt to predict, as accurate as possible, the
number and type of trips which will take place
on a particular facility.
 Steps in Design Process/
Traffic Design
3- Traffic performance analysis:
 Establish relation between demand and design
features of the facility (capacity analysis).

4- Size the facility or system based on

performance standards and the traffic
analysis:
 For a highway decide number of lanes to be
provided at various locations.
 For an airport decide whether several parallel
runways will be required.
 For a railroad decide whether to provide a single
or double track.
 Steps in Design Process/
Location
5- Determine the location of the facility or
system:
 Consider several alternative locations.
 Deciding between alternative may require
preliminary design, cost estimate, and
environment impact analysis.
 Detailed physical mapping, based on aerial
photography and field surveys, may be required.
6- Determine the configuration and/or
orientation of the facility or system :
 Decide direction of an airport runway
 Decide transit system route structures or
selecting of highway interchange types.
 Steps in Design Process/
Physical Design
7- Identify physical design standards:
 Policy within given design organization.
 Designer must judge the applicability of given
design standards to particular situation.

8- Geometric design:
 Establishment of horizontal and vertical
alignment and cross sections, based on
considerations of such as operating
characteristics of vehicles, design standards,
and drainage.
 Steps in Design Process/
Physical Design
9- Design auxiliary systems:
 Drainage, lighting, traffic control, and
power supply (for electrified rail lines).

10- Design surface or guideway:

 Design of pavement or track for land
transportation facilities.
 Steps in Design Process/
Construction
11- Estimate construction cost and project impact:
 Major cost items: (Land (right-of-way), earthwork,
structures, and control devices).
 Final cost estimate are necessary before jobs can go out to
bid.
 Good practice to make rough cost estimate throughout the
design process and to base design decision on them.
 It is also necessary to identify environmental impacts and
the cost of environmental mitigation.

12- Evaluate design:

 Design should be evaluated continually throughout the
design process.
 Evaluations are based on criteria such as:
 physical feasibility and economy.
 Social, economic, and environmental impacts.
 Design Standards
 AASHTO: The American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials.
 Geometric design of highways: AASHTO policy on
geometric design of highways and streets (Green
Book).
 FHWA established min. design standards for
interstate system which is based on AASHTO.
 For rail facilities: American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA).
 For Airport landing areas:
 FAA standards: Federal Aviation Administration.
 ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization.
 Design Standards
 The physical performance of the transportation
facility, including its comfort and safety, is a
result of the interaction of:
 Vehicular characteristics.
 Human characteristics.
 Transportation facility characteristics.
 Physical design standards link physical
performance to design elements such as:
 Horizontal alignment.
 Vertical alignment.
 Cross section.
 Various design details.
 Transportation System
Characteristics (Design Elements)
Include:
 Minimum radius of horizontal curve:
 Applies to highways and railways.
 For a given design speed, Min radius is limited by max.
allowable side friction (based on comfort standards), max.
superelevation rate, and necessity to maintain stopping
sight distance.
 Maximum rate of super elevation
 Applies to highways and railways.
 For highways, max. rate of superelevation is limited by side
friction and by presence of roadside features such as
driveways.
 Major concern is to prevent slow-moving vehicles from
sliding to the inside of the curve under slippery conditions.
 For railways, it is limited by the need to limit imbalances in
the loads on the rails.
 Transportation System Characteristics
(Design Elements) Cont.
 Maximum grade:
 Applies to highways, railways, and runways.
 Max up grades are limited by the vehicle
power/weight ratio and vehicle traction.
 Max downgrades are limited by stopping
distances and sight distances.
 Max grades for particular classes of roadways
are also influence by traffic levels and the need
to maintain reasonable speed on upgrades.
 Minimum grades:
 For some types of highways and is limited by
the need to provide drainage.
 Transportation System Characteristics
(Design Elements) Cont.
 Minimum cross-slopes:
 Applies to highways, runways, and taxiways.
 Limited by the need to provide drainage.
 Minimum length of vertical curve:
 Applies to highways, railways, runways, and
taxiways.
 For highways: min. length is limited by stopping
or passing sight distance, vertical acceleration,
and appearance standards.
 For railways: min length is limited by the need
to prevent jerk on couplings in sag curves
 For runways and taxiways: min length is limited
by sight distance requirements.
 Transportation System Characteristics
(Design Elements) Cont.
 Edge radii in roadway and taxiway intersections:
 Limited by vehicle turning radii which are related to vehicle
wheelbase dimensions.
 Minimum intersection setbacks (min. distance to
obstruction to vision):
 Limited by stopping sight distance and driver gap
acceptance behavior.
 Freeway ramp junction details
 Limited by gap acceptance behavior, steering behavior in
entering or exiting lanes, and vehicle acceleration and
deceleration capabilities.
 Horizontal & vertical clearances:
 Applies to all modes of transportation.
 Limited by vehicle dimensions, and the need to provide
clear recovery zones for vehicle that run off the road.
 Highway Transportation
 Highway transportation is the dominant mode in passenger
travel and one of the principal freight modes.
 In order for a new highway project to become a reality, a
process is followed that includes planning, evaluation, design,
right-of-way acquisition, and construction.
 According to Virginia DOT, the road-building process includes:
1. Planning (6 to 24 months)
2. Design (15 to 24 months)
3. Environment (9 to 36 months)
4. Right-of-Way (6 to 21 months)
5. Construction (12 to 36 months)
 Thus, total project time can range from 4 to 12 years,
depending on the physical characteristics, scope, and
community support for the project.
 Highway Transportation cont.
 The Wisconsin DOT follows a six-step process
using citizen input and public hearing:
Step 1. Select Project.
Highway projects are selected based on a variety of criteria (public
concerns, traffic crash data, pavement and bridge condition, traffic
volume and trends, and forecasts of future growth).

Step 2. Investigate Alternates.

After a project is selected for inclusion, each alternative is
analyzed and assessed based on cost and its impact on people,
businesses, farmlands, wetlands, endangered species, historic
structures, artifacts, and landfills.
 Highway Transportation
cont.
Step 3. Obtain Final Approvals.
Information about acquisitions from farm operations is furnished
to the Department of Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protection
(DATCP), where it is reviewed to determine if Environmental
documents for federal projects are prepared for the approval of
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Similarly, projects
that are state-funded are approved by DOT.

Step 4. Develop Project Design.

The specific project route and related details are finalized. Affected
property owners are contacted to discuss land purchases and
relocation plans.
 Highway Transportation
cont.
Step 5. Prepare for Construction.
 The DOT Bureau of Highway Construction reviews each plan,
specification, and estimate package and prepares a document
suitable to be used by a contractor in preparing a bid.
 All land required for the project must have been purchased so
that the project site can be prepared for construction.
 The construction schedule is coordinated with utility companies
in the event that replacement of sewer, gas, power, or phone
lines are required.
 Request for project bids are advertised and those received
within a specified period are checked for completeness and
accuracy.
 All bids awarded are forwarded to the Governor for signature.
With contractor contracts approved and signed, construction
usually begins within 30 – 45 days - weather permitting.
 Highway Transportation
cont.
Step 6. Construct the Project.
A pre-construction meeting is held with the contractor, local
utilities, Department of Natural Resources, and local
government officials.
The DOT coordinates with property owners and local businesses to
ensure that all prior commitments to landowners, such as access
to homes and businesses, are fulfilled.
Citizens are kept informed of construction progress through
meetings and news releases sent to local media. Web sites,
project newsletters, and brochures are developed for larger
projects.
 Sources of Funds for Highways
 Highway users are the primary source of funds to build and
maintain the nation’s roads.
 Taxes.
 Fuel taxes (changing).
 State and local license and registration fees.
 Highway user fees.
 New concepts of highway finance are amerging. Were the
technology available so that vehicles could be charged on the
basis of a per vehicle (or ton) mile driven, then cost could be
allocated directly on the basis of units consumed, as is the
case for consumption water, natural gas, and electricity.
Electronic tolling represents a movement in that direction. The
use of “value-pricing” is being tested and considered as a
means to charge for services rendered and to use variable
pricing that recognizes changes in demand.
 Course Highway Design
Project
 A road's primary function is to facilitate the safe,
practical, effective, and efficient transportation of
people and products from one place to another.
 It’s critical that road designs meet the needs and expectations
of all users of the road, including cyclists, pedestrians, and
automobiles.
 Additionally, the design must take into account the geometric
characteristics and performance of the vehicle.
 In addition, it is crucial to take into account all relevant
economic, social, environmental, aesthetic, and other
issues in addition to meeting these standards.
 Design Process: The geometric design of a road consists of
the design of its horizontal and vertical alignment and its cross-
section, using standard graphical representations.
 Course Highway Design
Project cont.
Standard plans used for road design are:
1-View plan.
 Topographic /Contour maps with scale
1:10,000 to 1:100,000).
 The horizontal alignment of the road is
composed of three basic element types:
 Tangent or straight lines
 Circular curves, and
 Transition curves (usually spirals)
 Course Highway Design
Project cont.
Standard plans used for road design are:
2-Longitudinal section (Profile).
 The longitudinal section is used to design the vertical
alignment of the road.
 The horizontal scale is usually the same as the scale of the
view plan.
 The vertical scale is selected according to the prevailing terrain
conditions (usually 1/10 of the horizontal scale, e.g. 1:200
vertical scale for 1:2,000 horizontal scale).
 The vertical alignment consists of two basic geometric
elements:
 Grades, and
 Vertical curves (crest or sag)
 Course Highway Design
Project cont.
Standard plans used for road design are:
3-Cross-sections.
 The width and slope of the traffic lanes and shoulders are worked out
based on traffic needs and drainage requirements.
 The slopes of embankments and cuttings depend on the type of
material to be excavated, environmental factors, the importance and
economy of the road.
 Cross-sections are also drawn (usually in every 20 m) to calculate the
volume of earthworks (cut and fill) involved in the project.
 Cross-sections are drawn in natural scale (without distortion) 1:50,
1:100 or 1:200.
4. Haulage diagram (MHD)
 Haulage diagram represents the volumes of earth to be moved along
the road and the differences of the cut materials.
 Design Standards
 Geometric road design standards are used as an aid to
achieve consistent and operationally effective road designs.
Standards are needed to:
 Maintain a degree of uniformity, particularly across
administrative boundaries;
 To ensure that road funds were not mis-spent,
through inappropriate designs, or through
inadequate provision for future traffic growth or for
current operations.
 To ensure maximum possible levels of safety and
comfort whilst providing an economical and
consistent design of the highway.
 Design Factors
 Design standards are provided to select the
parameters of the geometric elements of the road.
 The principal factors influencing that choice of
design standards are as follows:
 Safety
 Financial level
 Terrain
 Traffic volume
 Traffic composition
 Road functional class
 Environment
 Energy
 Stage construction
 Design Factors/ Safety
 safety is a prime goal of road design,
whatever design standard is adopted.

 Geometric parameters must always be

appropriate to the likely speed of
operation, enabling the driver to perceive
hazards in time to take appropriate action.
Design Factors/ Financial level
 The appropriate design standards depend on both
the overall availability of finance and the state of
development of the road network.
 Road construction costs increase rapidly with higher
geometric standards.
 When the overall network is substantially adequate
and finance is available, higher geometric standards
are appropriate.
 When the network is inadequate in terms of traffic
demand and funds are limited, geometric standards
may be lowered selectively on parts of the road
system.
 Design Factors/ Terrain + Traffic
Volume & composition
Terrain:
 high geometric standards may be selected in flat areas at
practically no additional cost, while in steep mountainous
country, lower standards are appropriate.
Traffic volume:
 A road must be designed to satisfy the traffic demands
estimated for a future year (up to 20 years ahead).
 Road user costs (particularly travel time) are in inverse ratio to
the geometric design parameters. Hence, the more the design
traffic volume, the higher standards are adequate.
Traffic Composition:
 The proportion of heavy vehicles influences firstly the structural
design of the road pavement, but also some aspects of
geometric design (vertical grades, lane width, etc.)
 Design Factors/ Road Functional
class & Environment
Road functional class:
 Roads fall into hierarchy of functional classes. Rural roads of
higher class generally cater for a higher proportion of longer
length journeys, so it may be appropriate to select higher
design standards.

Environment:
 Environmental factors need to be considered as an essential
part of the design process; e.g. valuable resources, such as
an adjacent area of high quality agricultural or recreational
land, may merit preservation and this may lead to the need to
apply lower geometric standards.
 Design Factors/ Energy &
Stage Construction
Energy:
Upgrades exceeding about 5% cause greater consumption of
fuel by heavy vehicles. However, at the present fuel prices,
flattening of grades can rarely justified on the basis of
energy saving alone.

Stage construction:
If short and medium term requirements are considerably
lower than the long term, it may be financially more
advantageous to adopt lower standards for the
short/medium term design and upgrade it later, according to
the growth of the demand.