Aug-24

LECTURE: TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

INTRODUCTION to Structural Analysis

Definition and Importance

Structural Analysis is a core branch of civil and mechanical engineering that focuses on
the determination of the effects of loads, forces, and stresses on physical structures and
their components. It is essential for designing structures that can safely withstand all the
forces they may encounter throughout their life.

Structures include buildings, bridges, aircraft, ships, machinery, and other engineered
constructions. Each of these structures faces various types of loads such as gravity
(dead loads), occupants and usage (live loads), and environmental forces like wind,
snow, and seismic activities.

The analysis helps in predicting the behavior of structures under these loads, ensuring
they are safe and stable. It is crucial for preventing structural failures, which can lead to
catastrophic consequences including loss of life, economic loss, and environmental
damage.
A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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INTRODUCTION to Structural Analysis

Key Objectives

Safety: Ensure that structures are safe for occupants and users by evaluating their ability
to bear loads without collapsing or undergoing excessive deformation.

Functionality: Maintain the intended use of the structure throughout its lifespan. This
means analyzing how well the structure performs under normal conditions and during
unexpected events like natural disasters.

Efficiency: Optimize the use of materials and design to achieve economic feasibility
while meeting safety and functionality requirements. Engineers aim to use the least
amount of material for the greatest strength, which also minimizes costs and
environmental impact.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

INTRODUCTION to Structural Analysis

What is a structure?
A structure is a system of connected parts designed to support a load. In civil
engineering, key examples include buildings, bridges, and towers, while in other
engineering fields, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, and mechanical
systems are significant.

When designing structures for public use, engineers must consider safety, aesthetics,
serviceability, and economic and environmental constraints. This design process, which is
both creative and technical, requires knowledge of material properties and mechanics.

After a preliminary design, structural analysis ensures the structure has the necessary
stiffness and strength. This involves making idealizations about supports and connections,
determining loads from codes, and calculating forces and displacements. The analysis
informs successive design refinements.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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INTRODUCTION to Structural Analysis

Classification of Structures
Importance: Structural engineers must recognize different
structural elements and classify structures by form and
function.
Structural Elements:
Tie Rods: Structural members subjected to a tensile force
are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to
the nature of this load, these members are rather
slender, and are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or
channels,

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

INTRODUCTION to Structural Analysis

Classification of Structures
Importance: Structural engineers must recognize different structural
elements and classify structures by form and function.
Structural Elements:
Beams: Horizontal members designed primarily to carry vertical loads
and resist bending moments. They vary in cross-section and support
type, with designs like wide flanges and plate girders for large spans.
Concrete Beams: Rectangular in cross-section, reinforced with
steel rods to resist tension, and can be precast or formed on-site.
Timber Beams: Sawn from solid wood or laminated with glued
sections.

Columns: Vertical members resisting axial compressive loads, often

with tube or wide-flange sections in metals and circular or square
cross-sections in concrete. Beam-columns resist both axial loads and
bending moments.
A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Classification of Structures

Types of Structures
A structural system is a combination of structural elements and materials designed to
support loads. These systems can be classified into four basic types, listed in order of
increasing complexity in their force analysis:
Trusses:
Trusses are selected for structures requiring large spans where depth is not a primary
design criterion.
They consist of slender elements typically arranged in a triangular pattern, which
efficiently distribute loads.
Planar Trusses: These trusses lie in a single plane and are commonly used for bridges
and roof supports.
Space Trusses: These extend in three dimensions and are used in structures like derricks
and towers.
Due to their geometric arrangement, trusses convert bending loads into tensile or
compressive forces, making them more material-efficient compared to beams.
Trusses can economically span distances from 30 ft (9 m) to 400 ft (122 m), with
occasional use for even longer spans.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

Classification of Structures
Types of Structures

Cables and Arches:

Cables: These are flexible elements that carry loads in
tension and are often used in long-span bridges and
building roofs. Cables are advantageous for spans
greater than 150 ft (46 m) because they remain stable
under load without the risk of sudden collapse, unlike
beams or trusses. The main limitations include sag,
weight, and anchorage methods.

Arches: Arches carry loads primarily in compression and

are commonly used in bridges, dome roofs, and
masonry openings. Unlike cables, arches must be rigid
to maintain their shape, which introduces secondary
forces like shear and moment that must be accounted
for in their design.
A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Classification of Structures
Types of Structures

Frames:
Frames are structural systems composed of beams
and columns connected by either pin or fixed joints.
These are extensively used in building construction.
Frames can extend in two or three dimensions, and
the load on a frame causes bending in its members.
If the joints are rigid, the frame becomes statically
indeterminate, meaning its analysis requires
consideration of moment interactions between
beams and columns.
The strength and stability of frames are derived from
these moment interactions at the rigid joints, making
them robust for various structural applications.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

Classification of Structures
Types of Structures

Surface Structures:
•Surface structures are made from materials with a very
small thickness relative to their other dimensions, often
used in applications requiring large surface areas.
•Flexible Surface Structures: Examples include tents and
air-inflated structures, where the material acts as a
tensioned membrane.
•Rigid Surface Structures: Typically made from reinforced
concrete, these structures can take forms such as folded
plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids. They support
loads primarily in tension or compression, similar to cables
or arches, with minimal bending.
•Due to their complex three-dimensional geometry, the
analysis of surface structures is challenging and often
requires advanced techniques beyond basic structural
analysis.
A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Types of Loads

In structural analysis, different types of loadings are considered to assess how structures
respond under various conditions. These loadings can be classified based on the nature
of the force applied, the direction, duration, and the source. Here are the common types
of loadings in structural analysis:

1. Dead Loads (Permanent Loads)

Description: These are static loads that remain constant over time. Dead loads include
the weight of the structure itself, including beams, columns, floors, roofs, and any
permanent fixtures attached to the structure.
Examples: Weight of the building materials, fixed equipment, and other permanent
elements.

2. Live Loads (Imposed Loads)

Description: These are variable loads that can change in magnitude and location over
time. Live loads are typically movable and do not remain in a fixed position.
Examples: Furniture, occupants, vehicles, and movable equipment.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Types of Loads
3. Environmental Loads

Wind Loads:
Description: Caused by the effect of wind pressure on the •Earthquake Loads (Seismic
structure. Wind loads can vary based on the structure's Loads):Description: Caused
height, shape, and location. by ground motion during
Examples: Pressure on walls and roofs due to wind, uplift an earthquake. These loads
forces on roofs. are dynamic and require
Snow Loads: special consideration in
Description: The weight of accumulated snow on a design.
structure, which varies with geographic location and •Examples: Horizontal and
local climate conditions. vertical forces acting on a
Examples: Snow accumulation on roofs. building during an
Thermal Loads: earthquake.
Description: Caused by temperature changes, leading to
expansion or contraction of structural elements.
Examples: Expansion of a bridge deck during summer.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Types of Loads
4. Impact Loads
Description: Caused by sudden forces that are applied over a short period of time. Impact
loads are often much higher in magnitude than static loads.
Examples: Forces generated by a vehicle collision with a structure, machinery vibrations, or
a sudden load drop.

5. Dynamic Loads
Description: These loads vary with time and include forces that result from motion. Dynamic
loads can cause vibrations in the structure.
Examples: Loads from moving vehicles on a bridge, machinery vibrations, wind gusts.

6. Concentrated (Point) Loads

Description: Loads that are applied to a very small area of the structure. These loads are
typically idealized as being applied at a single point.
Examples: Load at the end of a cantilever beam, force applied by a column on a beam.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Types of Loads
7. Distributed Loads
Description: Loads that are spread over a large area or length of a structural element.
Distributed loads can be uniform or vary along the length of the structure.
Examples: Weight of flooring material on a floor slab, load of water in a tank.

8. Axial Loads
Description: Loads that act along the axis of a structural element, causing either
compression or tension.
Examples: The weight supported by a column (compression), forces in a tie rod (tension).
9. Lateral Loads
Description: Loads that act perpendicular to the axis of a structural element, often causing
bending or shear.
Examples: Wind pressure on a building facade, seismic forces on a structure.

10. Torsional Loads

Description: Loads that cause twisting of a structural element around its longitudinal axis.
Examples: Torque applied to a shaft, twisting forces on a beam due to eccentric loading.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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Types of Loads
11. Fatigue Loads
Description: Repeated or fluctuating loads that can cause progressive and localized
structural damage over time, leading to failure due to material fatigue.
Examples: Cyclic loading on bridges due to repeated vehicle passages, loads on airplane
wings during flight.
12. Settlement Loads
Description: Loads that arise due to differential settlement of the foundation, causing
additional stresses in the structure.
Examples: Uneven soil settlement under a building foundation.
13. Creep Loads
Description: These loads arise due to the long-term deformation of materials under
sustained load, especially in materials like concrete.
Examples: Long-term deflection in concrete beams due to sustained loads.
14. Buoyant Loads
•Description: Loads that occur when a structure is submerged or partially submerged in a
fluid, causing an upward force.
•Examples: Upward force on a submerged portion of a bridge pier.

A. E. Engr. Saifal Hameed || CE-207 || Structural Analysis - I || Aror University, Sindh.

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