Module 05 – Digital Techniques, Electronic Instrument System

Module 05

DIGITAL TECHNIQUES, ELECTRONIC

INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Pag.
 Module 05 – Digital Techniques, Electronic Instrument System

Copyright © 2020 by Aviotrace Swiss SA

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.

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Table of contents

5.1 Electronic instrument systems 5.10 Fiber optics

5.2 Numbering system 5.11 Electronic displays
5.3 Data conversion 5.12 Electrostatic sensitive devices
5.4 Data Buses 5.13 Software management control
5.5 Logic circuits 5.14 Electromagnetic environment
5.6 Basic computer structure 5.15 Typical electronic/digital aircraft systems
5.7 Microprocessors
5.8 Integrated circuits
5.9 Multiplexing

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Chapter 05.01

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

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Standard Cockpit

The basic aircraft cockpit is an analogue type. In this cockpit the flight instruments must be
grouped in a particular format conform to international laws.

The basic T

• Airspeed indicator (left)

• Altimeter (right)
• Attitude indicator or artificial
horizon (center)
• Gyro indicator (center low)

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Glass Cockpit – EADI and EHSI

The glass cockpit provides flight and navigation information on different screen
through Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS). Instead, all information
concerning the aircraft engine is shown by other systems called EICAS (Engine
Indicating and Crew Alerting System) and ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitoring).

Electronic displays of EFIS system can be split in two categories according to the
information provided:

• EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator), also called PFD (Primary Flight
Display)

• EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator), also called ND (Navigation Display).

The EADI is on the left for the pilot (who sits on the left) and on the right for the
copilot (who sit on the right). The EHSI is in a more central position compared to the
EADI.

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EADI

The EADI provides all attitude information. This monitor permanently show the flight
crew the basic ‘T’ information.

The EADI has a single display mode in which the graphic indication of an artificial
horizontal predominates.

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EHSI
The EHSI reproduces all information concerning navigation and flight planning. In this
case different display modes are available, because each of these is connected to a
particular type of information. The ND (navigation display) is located at the right of the
pilot if he is sitting on the left sit.

The main modes are ILS, VOR, PLAN, ARC, MAP and weather. The basic representation of
the EHSI is two or more circles with the aircraft in the center. The other particulars vary
according to the selected mode.

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Multifunction Display

A MFD (Multi Function Display) is a

screen (CRT or LCD) split into a number
of windows, each of which shows
different data.

It can group EADI and EHSI or display

different information.

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Glass cockpit layout

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Dark Cockpit

A modern cockpit, called dark cockpit, is the evolution of the glass cockpit. This is
developed thank to a new philosophy regarding general layout requirements and
safety.

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Dark Cockpit
New configuration and concept:

• Computer presence

• New controls: keyboards, trackballs and side-sticks

• New technology: touch screens allow saving space and providing reconfigurable controls.

• Help pilots in the decision making process

• Computers can be used to filter data and warn cabin crew only for hazardous situations (the
aircraft monitoring is completely delegated to the computers).

• Use lights or bright buttons left switched off when all systems are working correctly and
turned on in case of fault in order to recall attention.

• These lights remain on until the problem is solved or until pilots press the button to confirm
they have understood.

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Synthetic Vision System

• Displays a 3D view of the area surrounding the

aircraft by geophysical information loaded in a
database and by position data elaborated by the
IRS (Inertial Reference System).

• Views to give a representation of the area

around the aircraft in a clean and complete way,
in all weather and visibility conditions.

• The SVS receives data from the navigation

systems, such as IRS or GPS.

• The SVS is mainly used in remotely piloted

vehicles.

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Enhanced Vision System

• Provides information collected

from external sensors, such as an
infrared camera or a millimeter
wave radar.

• A common example is given by

the night vision.

• When EVS and SVS are

integrated they take the name of
Enhanced and Synthetic Vision
System (ESVS).

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HUD – Head-up display

• A display mounted in front of the pilots, one

display for each one, to show information
without forcing the flight crew to look away
from instruments.

• The HUD allows seeing outside and, at the

same time, looking up important data from
the aircraft.

• The HUD is composed of:

▪ A transparent display
▪ An image source, such as an LCD or a
laser.

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Chapter 05.02

NUMBERING SYSTEM

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Numbering system

General equation of positional number:

N: number to represent
C: digits
b: numeral system base
n : position

• Decimal system is a positional system with ten figures.

Example (base 10):

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Binary system

Binary system: Fields of application:

Digital techniques (on/off)

0;1 Computer science

Example: binary to decimal

11012 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 1310

Important rule for the conversion from binary to decimal number:

• If the binary number ends with 0 the decimal number is even;

•
Cap. 5.2
If Pag.
the13binaryRev.
number
01
ends with 1 the decimal number is odd;

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Binary system: decimal to binary conversion

Example: decimal to
binary conversion of the
number 13

Take the number in decimal notation, divide it by 2. The reminded is the first bit
on the right; the solution must be divided again by 2, until reaching 0. The same
technique can be used for every base (like in the example, for decimal-octal
conversion).

13 into binary notation is 1101.

256 into octal notation is 400.

Cap. 5.2 Pag. 13 Rev. 01

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Octal system

0;1;2;3;4;5;6;7

Fields of application:

• Digital techniques (transponder)

• Computer science

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Octal system

Characteristic:

• The base number is 8

Octal system: 0;1;2;3;4;5;6;7

Example: octal to decimal

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Hexadecimal system

0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7; 8 ; 9 ; A ; B ; C ; D ; E ; F

Fields of application:

• Digital techniques (data transmission)

• Computer science

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Hexadecimal system

Characteristic:

• The base number is 16;

• The primary advantage is to encode very long binary numbers in a compact way.

Hexadecimal system: 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; A ; B ; C ; D ; E ; F

Example: hexadecimal to decimal

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Arithmetic Operation on Binary Numbers - Sum

The SUM

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 carry=1

The computer notation uses an

established length of binary
numbers.

When the result is over the

maximum length, the result
number cannot be stored and
this error situation is called
overflow.

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Arithmetic Operation - Subtraction

The SUBTRACTION

0-0=0
0 - 1 = 1 borrow=1
1-0=1
1-1=0

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Arithmetic Operation - Multiplication

The MULTIPLICATION

0·0=0
0·1=0
1·0=0
1·1=1

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Arithmetic Operation - Division

The DIVISION

Repeated subtraction

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Binary – Negative number

• The "one's complement“ notation

Is defined as the number obtained by inverting all bits of the binary representation.

14(10) = 00001110(2) → −14(10) = 11110001(𝐶𝐶1)

• The “two's complement“ notation

Is defined as the result of the subtraction of the number from 2N, where N is the number
of bits, and adding 1, or also the result of sum by one’s complement to 1.

14(10) = 00001110(2)
−14(10) = 11111111 − 00001110 + 1 = 11110001 + 1 = 11110010(𝐶𝐶2)

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Chapter 05.03

DATA CONVERSION

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Analogue data
Consider for example a temperature transducer, as to say a generic device able to
monitor the temperature, its variations and able to generate an electric signal
proportional to these values, in particular the temperature is compared to a voltage
value.

Analogue signal can be defined as an endless series of values of a generic physical

magnitude.

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Digital data

A digital signal is a definite series of discrete values, as to say countable and it’s
represented by integers.

In the electronic field, assuming to use a binary coding of the datum, the generic signal
consists of a defined series of discrete values of an electrical magnitude.

I(t)

HIGH

LOW

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Conversion

ADC -> analogue to digital converters

DAC -> digital to analogue converters

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Conversion analogic to digital

In ADC converter the input is an analogue signal, instead the output signal is a digital signal.
Both, switch and relay, work in a similar way:

• Switch: it’s on when there is the presence of binary number one, off when the binary
number is 0.
• Relay: it’s energised when there is the presence of binary number one, de-energised
when the binary number is 0.
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Conversion analogic to digital

The generic procedure of conversion from analogue into digital has three phases:

• Sampling: is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete signal.

• Quantization: is the process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set
(rounding values) to some unit of precision. For example with a binary number on 2
bit can obtain 4 quantization levels.

• Coding: means that the voltage values associated to the different reading of the
analogue signal need to be converted to a binary code signal. The number of available
bit affects quantized levels and precision. From a theoretical point of view, for an ADC
conversion without any loss of information is required an endless number of bit for
encoding.

The conversion procedure produces always an approximation, which is due to the

discretization process.

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Charset

The method that matches a binary word to a symbol is called charset.

• Typical example is ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange): coded words on 7 bit to alphanumeric characters, 128 keyboard
characters.

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BCD – Binary Coded Decimal

• Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a digital encoding method for numbers using decimal
notation, with each decimal digit represented by its own binary sequence, and so
the correspondence between binary numbers and decimal number is simple.

• In BCD, a digit is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the
decimal range 0 through 9.

• BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed.

By utilizing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly
simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. (seven-segment
displays)

Example:

59 (decimal number) = 5 (0101 in BCD) – 9 (1001 in BCD) = 01011001

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Gray code

•The Gray code is a method able to order a sequence of digital words of variable length.

•This method consists to copy words in specular way and add to the first half the bit 0
and to the second half the bit 1, like a recursive algorithm that permits to create infinite
words. Each binary number differs only for one digit to the previous one and the next
one.

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Chapter 05.04

DATA BUS

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Data buses

Data Buses are used in different fields: informatics, industrial and aeronautical.

We will take into consideration the difference between Parallel and Serial data bus.
We will then check in detail the following protocols:

1. Parallel data bus (Centronics, ATA)

2. Serial data bus (RS 232)
3. Bus ARINC 429, ARINC 629, ARINC 659
4. Bus MIL-STD-1553
5. Aircraft Network / Ethernet (AFDX)

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Parallel transmission

The parallel transmission is a type of connection used to transmit digital information,

even if exist cables able to transmit in parallel analogue information.
In parallel transmission more conductors are used to transmit simultaneously the
information by voltage difference (needs ground wire).

So a cable transmitting n bit in parallel consists at least of n+1 single conductors, one for
each bit to be transmitted and one for the ground signal.

Consider now two different

solutions:

• Centronics

• ATA interface

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Centronics

Centronics identifies a communication protocol for parallel transmission.

Characteristics:

• Protocol communication
between motherboard
and devices.

• 25 pin, 8 bit,
Transistor/Transistor
Logic (TTL) (0/1 -> 0, 5 V)

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ATA
The term ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment) identifies a standard computer
interface related to the parallel communication.

•Communication between motherboard and HD

• 40 pin, 16 bit OR 80 pin, 32 bit

• Master/slave protocol

The ATA cable generally has 3 connectors.

•The first connector, commonly blue, is used for the connection with the
motherboard.

•The other two connectors can be used to connect simultaneously a hard disk and an
optical reader. The two connectable devices are taken as master or slave units only
because of the connector.

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Serial transmission
The serial transmission is a communication mode among digital devices, where
information is sent one after the other and reaches the receiver in the same order of
transmission. The serial mode is one of the most common in informatics because needs
less wires, with a consequently reduction in costs, is more tolerant about interferences
and transmission errors.

Compared to the serial transmission, the parallel one has higher performances and
speed, at equal frequency, but it’s more expensive.

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Serial transmission

When data are sent through a serial line they have to be serialized

This operation is generally done by the serial interface using a particular

register consisting of a chain of 1-bit cells connected together.

At each clock impulse the single bit scrolls from a cell to the next one.

These particular registers are called:

• SIPO (Serial Input Parallel Output) when they deal with the transformation
from serial into parallel

• PISO (Parallel Input Serial Output) when they deal with the transformation
from parallel into serial.

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Serial transmission

There are two different modes of serial transmission:

• Synchronous
• Asynchronous.

The synchronous mode can be performed as follows: simply counting on the operative
simultaneity of transmitting and receiving systems, using a synchronization signal. A
synchronized signal, called clock, is used. At each clock an operation is performed, and so all
is regulated by the clock frequency.

The presence of a periodic signal, the clock, needs the presence of at least two wires: one
for the data and the other for the synchronization signal. The use of an additional conductor
for the synchronization signal makes this solution not always applicable.

The asynchronous mode implies that the transmitter and the receiver are connected by
means of a single wire and are synchronized by means of data bit. It is a very logic and
rational procedure.

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Serial transmission

To be able to organize the transmission rules are needed:

• first bit sent informs the receiver about the starting transmission;
• parity bit is added to verify if the transmission hasn't errors;
• bit of stop is sent to indicate the end of the transmission;
• transmission needs in general a greater number of wires because not every
bit sent carries data.

Serial transmissions can be :

• Full duplex mode: the transmission and the receiving are allowed
simultaneously

• Half duplex mode: only one transmission by one only is allowed, in one
direction.

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RS 232

• The physic protocol implies two signals in a full-duplex

configuration and other control signals.

• The physic protocol defines a serial interface at low

speed;

• Communication between computer and modem;

• 3 asynchronous serial signal (2 data wires + 1 ground

wire)

• Referent voltage from +/-5V to +/-15V, typically +/-12V

• 9 pin OR 25 pin (rarely used)

• Master/slave protocol.

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Arinc 429
ARINC 429 is the most commonly used data bus for commercial and transport
aircraft. ARINC 429 bus is a simple bus, point to point, in which there is only one
transmitter, called SOURCE, and one or more receivers, called SINK, up to a
maximum of 20. Simple means that the connection is unidirectional and the single
subsystem transmits and receives on separated lines.

It’s slower but more secure than Commercial Ethernet. Sent data consist of 2
words. Each word consists of a series of 32 bit. The data line consists of two wires
identified as Line A and line B.

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Arinc 429

• 1-8 bits are identified as LABEL field → type of transmitted data.

• 9-10 bits are identified as SDI (Source Destination Identifier) → identify transmission source, but in
the case of multiple transmissions is used to identify the receiver for which the data are destined.
• 11-29 bits contain the real data.
• 30-31 bits contain the status or the sign.
• 32 bit → parity bit check (verify the correct transmission)
The bit is called LSD (Least Significant Digit) when has the smallest value and it’s the bit at the right
end of the binary number.
The bit is called MSD (Most Significant Digit) when has the highest value and it’s the bit at the left end
of the binary number.

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MIL-STD 1553

MIL-STD 1553 is employed predominantly for military applications but represents also a valid
comparison to bus ARINC 429.

MIL-STD 1553 is a linear bus with a MASTER-SLAVE structure.

It consists of:

• Some subsets, defined as RT, Remote Terminal

• One or more bus controller, defined as BC, Bus Controller
• A bus monitor, defined as BM.

RT can transmit, receive or wait for instructions. This function is assigned to the bus
Controller, BC. Bus monitor has functions of monitoring. It receives and stores information,
like flight test, maintenance system, mission analysis, etc.

The transmission occurs, as for bus ARINC 429, by means of WORDS. In that case the WORD
consists of 20 bit and is transmitted at 1 Mbit/s.

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AFDX

• AFDX (Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet) is based on Ethernet, a type of

computer network, widely used to configure Local Area Networks (LANs)
thanks to a presence of many recognized standards.

• Ethernet technology defines standard at low level. For example wires like
coaxial cables, twisted pair cables and fiber optic cables; connectors such as
BNC or RJ-45; bandwidth from 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s; range, from 100 m to 2
km.

• OSI protocol suite specify 7 levels of manage information.

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AFDX
Aeronautical bus, such as ARINC 429 or MIL-STD-1553, are less fast and flexible
than Ethernet, but more reliable and secure.

The expansion of avionics implies new requirements and standards for AFDX:

• increase of data exchange → higher and guaranteed bandwidth

• safe and reliable requirements → define maximum values of latency and jitter

This set of characteristics is named Quality of Service (QoS).

• Bandwidth is defined as the rate of data transfer, measured in bits per second
(bps).
• Latency is defined as the delay time of transmission, that is the time between
the sending of a frame and its receiving.
• Jitter is defined as the statistical variation of latency, results in real time
performance degradation along the transmission.

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AFDX

• AFDX main elements are: End Systems, Virtual Links, Switches.

• An End System (ES) is the interface between the avionic system and the
physical medium, based on the OSI protocol suite. This device allows the
access and the managing of deterministic characteristics.

• Virtual Links (VLs) are private unidirectional logic connection between one
sender and one or more receivers (point-to-multipoint). This is the way in
which it’s possible to share a single cable between more devices.

• Switches forward data across the network. Switches works on level 2 and
manage the data priority.

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AFDX

The Ethernet network is duplicate in two net, called respectively A (red) and B
(blue) and independent between them, created for the right grade of reliability.
Each frame runs on the two network at the same time.

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AFDX

Redundancy Management (RM) reassembly the data in the correct order by the
“first-valid-wins” policy: the first frame arrived is approved in reception, the second
one will discarded. Only if the first one is incorrect, the second one is maintained to
assembly the information.

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AFDX

A frame is composed:

• MAC header (the type of IP protocol and destination and source MAC address)
• The network includes IP packet structure;
• Sequence Number (SN) which permit to reassembly the frames in the right order
• Frame Check Sequence (FCS), 4 bytes to allocate a result of CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Checksum) algorithm to verify the correctness of message.
• 7 bit of preamble used to separate different frames,
• 1 bit of Start Frame Delimiter (SFD), used to report the start of message.

Example of frame composition:

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Chapter 05.05

LOGIC CIRCUITS

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Logic gates

The principal logic gates we will consider are the following:

➔ The NOT gate

➔The OR gate
➔The NOR gate
➔ The AND gate
➔The NAND gate
➔The EXOR gate

The following explanation is based on a positive logic. This means that the
high logic status, or 1, corresponds to the presence of electricity; instead the
low logic status, or 0, corresponds to the absence of electricity.

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NOT gate

The NOT gate has one input and one output: it

produces in the output an inversion or negation of the
input signal.
It consist of one input and one output as can be seen in
the figure.

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AND gate

The AND gate produces a multiplication of the input signals.

It consist of two o more inputs and one output as can be seen
below.
Conventionally the logic product of two values corresponds to
1 only if the two (or more) inputs are 1 too. A * B = S

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OR gate

The OR logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one
output S.
The OR logic gate produces the sum of the input signals.

Only one high input is necessary to have the output to be 1.

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NOR gate

The circuit corresponding to NOR gate is essentially characterized by two switches,

A and B, connected in parallel to the output S.
The output S, is opposite in sign respect to the OR gate.
Expression:
𝑛𝑜𝑡 ( 𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑆

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NOR gate

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NAND gate

The NAND logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one output S.
It can be immediately seen that it seems as the composition of a gate AND and gate NOT.

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NAND gate

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EXOR gate

The EXOR logic gate has at least two logic inputs, A and B, and only one output S.
EXOR gate is similar to OR gate, but we have output 1 only if both inputs are
different (couples of two). The circuit corresponding to an EXOR gate is
essentially characterized by four switches: A, not B, not A and B

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EXOR gate
We have four possible conditions of the two couples of switches and the lamp S state :
1. A = 0 and B = 0 : The complementary switches, not A and not B, will be both
closed. In that case the lamp is evidently off.
2. A = 0 and B = 1 : Complementary switches, not A and not B will be respectively
closed and open. In this case the lamp is on.
3. A = 1 and B = 0 : Complementary switches, not A and B, will be open. In this case
the lamp is on.
4. A = 1 and B = 1 : Complementary switches, not A and not B will be open. In this
case the lamp is off.

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Karnaugh map

The Karnaugh map is a table where collect all the outputs and to find out the
logic expression who represents the general output description. It’s also the
main method to obtain the circuit minimization.

The map is a table where rows and columns are coded by Grey code.

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Race Condition and Glitch

A race condition is a particular state where two or more inputs are dependent in
time to develop the output.

Example: in an EX-OR port, when we have two high inputs, output signal is low.
At the same time the two inputs became low, we expect the output remain low.
However, it’s possible to have in output an undesired transition from 0 to 1 and
again to 0, because in the real world both inputs can’t change at the same time.

It is an undesirable transition between two logic statuses caused by a portal

delay. This transition is called glitch.

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Structure

The structure of logic ports is based on transistor.

C-MOS technology (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) uses a couple of IC

(integrated circuit) realized on the same substrate: N-MOS and P-MOS.

P-MOS circuit permits to obtain an high signal, instead N-MOS circuit creates a low
signal. That’s the reason because they are called respectively Pull-Up network and Pull-
Down network. The behavior is dual, when one works the other one is excluded. When
the input is high the p-mos doesn’t work and n-mos works linking output with the
ground.
There is a certain inputs/outputs limit to follow in order to make the signal propagation
in the circuits satisfactory. We define as fan-in the maximum number of inputs accepted
by a logic gate and we define as fan-out the maximum number of logic gates which can
be connected in sequence to the output of a logic gate.
Both values are described in datasheets, documents which lists the electrical
characteristics of digital devices.

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AND structure

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OR structure

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Chapter 05.06

BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE

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Terminology
Bit
In computing and telecommunications a bit is defined as the basic unit of
information storage. A bit can also be defined as a quantity that can assume only
two possible values: 1 and 0. These states are often interpreted as logic values,
either "true" or "false", and either "on" or "off".
A bit can be represented by an electrical voltage in the most modern computing
devices.

Byte
A byte is a unit of information storage, which represents the smallest addressable
element for a given computer architecture. The use of a byte means eight bits.

Parity Bit
The parity bit represents an additional check bit, which is used in order to detect
errors and to verify the transmission data. For example, if the computer uses 8 bit
it will have a ninth bit for parity checking.

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Hardware

➔ Power unit

➔ CPU also processor

➔ Memory devices

➔ Buses

➔ Computer instruction

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Hardware

CPU
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called processor, is the portion of a
computer system that has the function to carry out the instructions of a
computer program from one of the input devices and then to transfer the results
to output devices of the computer. In other words, the CPU is the brain of a
computer system. To execute a sequence of stored instructions CPU must
perform some elementary operations: fetch, decode, execute, memory and
write back.

IC
In electronics, an integrated circuit (IC) is a miniaturized electronic circuit, which
is built in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.

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Memory
Memories are computer devices that can store information in binary code, either
permanently or temporarily. The physical element of the memory is called
memory cell. Each memory cell contains one bit.

There are several types of memory devices. We analyze the most utilized:
• RAM
• ROM
• Back-up memory storage: is a non-volatile memory
• Cache memory
• Internal memory cache
• External memory cache
• Flash memory: it is a type of programmable memory
• Virtual memory: it is a technique used by operating systems like Windows to
increase the amount of RAM available to programs running.
• Permanent memory storage and removable memory storage.

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Memory

A first classification of computer memories is:

• The primary memory: it is the memory with quick access and low capacity. It
preserves the information and is immediately available. This type of memory
includes for example RAM and ROM
• The secondary memory: it is the long term memory and it has a high computer
capacity. The programs and the data, not available in a particular time, are
stored in this memory until they are necessary again. The secondary memory
devices are also called mass memories or external memories The most common
is the Hard-Disk, but we have also CD-ROM, and the double side DVD, etc.

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Software

• Operating systems
An operating system is the collection of all programs used by the computer to
manage its resources.
Operating systems can be divided according to operating modes for which
they are designed: single user/multitasking operating systems and multi
user/operating systems.

• Programming languages
Programming languages are languages that can be understood by the
computer and which allows the human-computer communication. They are
used by computer programmers.

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Buses

The computer bus is composed of a set of copper cables on the motherboard.

Increasing the number of lines, more quantity of bit can be transmitted in the same
time.

There are 2 main groups of data buses:

• System bus: it’s a group of links that connects the CPU to the other computer
devices and includes address line and data line

• Local bus: solve problems of slowdown of the functions, so peripherals aren’t

connected to the system bus, but they are jointed with a larger line of
transmission.

The many type of data buses are:

• ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)
• PCI (Peripheral Connection Interface)
• SCSI (Simple Computer System Interface)
• USB (Universal Serial Bus)

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Instructions

• The machine language is the “mother tongue” of a computer.

• The single words of a machine language are called instructions.
• A program is a sequence of instruction words encoded in binary bits
• The instruction set includes all the instruction words that the computer can
interpret and execute.

Each instruction word consists of 2 main parts:

• The operation code that specifies what operation the computer must
perform.
• The operand part which specifies the address of memory locations from
where data are to be called back in order to be processed and where the result
data are sent after at the end of the process.

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Chapter 05.07

MICROPROCESSORS

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Microprocessors

A microprocessor, often called a CPU, is a machine which is able to carry out

a wide range of computation on a single computer chip.
A microprocessor represents an implementation of the CPU in a single
integrated circuit.
The microprocessor is considered the “heart” of data elaboration, and its
integrated circuit is capable to compute and write the memory information.
The microprocessor is able to execute an elementary operation, only if an
appropriate binary combination, called instruction, is supplied to it.

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Microprocessors

The operations of the microprocessor are performed in two phases:

• The first is the fetch cycle, during which the instruction, that must be done,
is called back from the memory and sent to the instruction register.
• The second one is the executive time, in which the microprocessor executes
actions contained in the instruction.

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Pipeline

The elaboration process is divided in more than 2 phases, usually 5,

but it’s possible to have up to 20 stages.

The 5 common stages are:

• Instruction Fetch (IF): read the instruction from memory;

• Instruction Decode (ID): decode the instruction and read the operands from registers
• Execution (EX): instruction execution
• Memory (MEM): access to the memory for read or write
• Write Back (WB): write the instruction result on register.

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Pipeline

In modern microprocessors, the method to increase the number of instructions executed

in a time unit is called pipeline.

When pipeline is to regime, microprocessor does an instruction for each clock pulse. To
elaborate an instruction, it is necessary to wait for 5 clock pulses. To avoid waste of time is
possible to execute in parallel 4 instructions.

Typical cause of performance deterioration in a pipeline architecture are the branch

conditions in the software code.

Another way to improve the execution speed consists in arranging a parallelism on

pipeline.

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CISC and RISC

Each instruction is coded in words of N bits (N = the parallelism grade).

Nowadays N = 8, 16, 24, 128 bit per word.

About instruction set, it’s possible to split microprocessors in two big categories:

• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC): hardware architecture which can

execute many instructions, sometimes associated to complex functions (such as
trigonometric functions)

• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC): hardware architecture which prefers

a simple structure with simple and reduced instruction set.

CISC haven’t necessary better performance than RISC.

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Microprocessors

The internal structure of a microprocessor varies according to different models

in continuous development. In spite of this there is a great uniformity in the
base structure and in the principal blocks:

▪ Clock generator
▪ Control and processing unit
▪ Decoder for the instructions
▪ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
▪ Registers
▪ Data bus.

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Clock generator

A processor is composed of different logic circuits, which must execute

different operations.
These circuits must interact among them in order to be able to exchange
information.
For this reason the operations of these circuits must be synchronized: the clock
generator is the device that has this task. It is shared by all circuits and it
produces a signal of clock of fixed duration.
The clock generator is a sort of processor clock.
To generate a clock signal an oscillator is requested. The most reliable are
quartz oscillators, just utilized in a normal watch.
The unit of measurement of the clock frequency is Hertz that is the number of
cycles per seconds.

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CPU and Decoder

CONTROL UNIT
• The control unit is the heart of a microprocessor.
• An operative cycle starts when this unit receives a code from input lines.
During the operative cycle the control unit sends a command sequence to
another block of the microprocessor.

DECODER

• The decoder is a network of transcoding. It receives the signal as it is

stored and then it transforms the data format in an appropriate language
that is understood by the control unit. This language is usually the binary
code.

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ALU
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is the block that is able to execute mathematical
calculations and logic operations, when it receives appropriate instructions from the
control unit.
The set of executable processes varies according to different types of integrated
circuits.

Typical operations are:

• Arithmetic operations
• Logic operations
• Shift operations on registers.

Elements:
• A and B are the operands,
• R the result,
• F the operation select signal
• D an eventually signal which advise on status operation, such as overflow,
division by 0, or other special situations.

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FPU

Many times, ALU is supported by Floating Point Unit (FPU), a device used to
elaborate arithmetic operations on floating point numbers.

In microcontroller or embedded systems, FPU isn’t an integrated device, but a

math coprocessor.

A coprocessor is simply a processor designed to make special functions and is

always used together a main processor.

It’s common that FPU are pipelined, because operations are more complex
than fixed point one and so it’s possible to increase the performance by
dividing the elaboration sequence in several simple stages.

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Register

There are different types of internal register of a microprocessor:

• Instruction register: it stores the contents of data bus in the case where
it represents the instruction code, in particular op-code and operands.
• Accumulator: it is the register used in all operation concerning the ALU.
• Temporary register: it contains the second element of all calculations,
which will be executed by the ALU every time it is necessary.
• State register: in this register some significant bits provided by ALU or
data buses are stored.
• Address register: the address of the external memory location with
which the microprocessor wants to operate is recorded in this register.
• Program counter: it is a register that can increase its contents of one
unit every time it’s requested, it can store the address of successive
instructions.
• Pointer: this register is used to address a particular memory area that
stores re-entered addresses

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Operand and Memory interface

Memory interface is based on three main buses:

• Address bus, where processor put the memory address to read or
write
• Data bus, where memory and processor move data
• Status bus, where processor changes status flags to advise events

There is two addressing modes in access memory:

• Absolute, address is specified in full way
• Relative, address is specified by offset, a number to sum to a start
address.

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MMU

In an access memory it’s important to define time by time which data must be
replaced in cache and stored in mass memory. This policy are managed by the
coprocessor called Memory Management Unit (MMU).

MMU manages logic addresses and memory addresses, supports memory

protection, resolves access requests to buses and manages multi user.

MMU is “between” the virtual memory and RAM (physical memory). When MMU
receives a request, examines Page Table and search the correct virtual address and
so return the physical address.

When microprocessor produces a virtual address, the operative system translates

it into a physical address and than, if necessary, MMU moves data between
different memories in hierarchy.

Virtual space is divided in pages by a method called pagination.

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Chapter 05.08

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

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IC - Integrated Circuits

The frequency spectrum is filled with noise and other signals from unwanted
sources. This problem is also present in bands used for aviation communications
and navigation transmissions.
Unwanted sources can cause interferences on the aircraft controls and on other
airborne systems when they have the same frequencies, especially if aircraft use
digital equipment. In order to avoid these problems and to prevent the
reception of false signals it is desirable to have a method of filtering out or
ignoring unwanted signals.
A modern solution is to use microprocessors in the transmitter and in the
receiver. A simple technique is to install an encoder IC in the transmitter and a
decoder one in the receiver.

Encoding and decoding processes are nowadays used in most systems in order
to prevent interferences and provide increased safety and security.

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Encoder
Encoders are designed by two main parts:
❑ Rotor, which rotate and is composed by a drilled disk and a drive shaft
❑ Body, which contain the electronic devices, such as LED, photodiode, …

Three categories can be distinguished:

1. Tachometer, can count holes on the disk surface. It measures traveled distance, speed
and acceleration.
2. Incremental encoder, are dependent to the start position, so it’s necessary to know the
reference position.
3. Absolute encoder, maintains position information about the rotation.

There are four possible way to design an encoder:

1. Capacitive: are part of proximity sensors family that can read the presence of an electric
field.
2. Inductive: are part of proximity sensors family that can read the presence of an magnetic
field.
3. Magnetic, uses a sensor based on Hall’s effect to read holes
4. Optical, they uses a couple LED-photodiode.

The opposite to the encoder is the decoder, its aim is to decode signals.

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Encoder/Decoder as Codec

Encoder is used to code a digital signal by a codec (COder-DECoder) and make it

compressed, in particular it changes data from one format to another. Decoder
vice versa.

Typical data which use codec are audio and video stream.

A video sequence is organized in frames (the single picture). To reduce the video
size, we can handle data about sampling and quantization, but this method
reduces also the video quality.

This method uses redundancy statistic.

Video codec uses temporal redundancy. Only information which changes from a
frame to another it’s transmitted , so the movement can be estimated by the
difference between nearby pictures.

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IC – Integrated circuits

The integrated circuits can be divided into 4 groups according to their

complexity and to the number of components:

▪ SSI (Small Scale Integration): are ICs that contain a maximum number of 11
logic ports. CPU isn’t an example of SSI.
▪ MSI (Medium Scale Integration): are ICs which contain 100 logic ports
▪ LSI (Large Scale Integration): are ICs that contain between 100 and 1000
logic ports
▪ VLSI (Very Large Integrated scale): are ICs which contain 1000 or more logic
ports.

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Moore’s law

Moore’s Law: the number of transistor per square inch on integrated circuits will be
double every 18 months.

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IC – Integrated circuits

A digital system can be represented by three several domains:

• Behavioral
• Structural
• Physical

There are three main design methods to develop an integrated circuit:

• ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit)
• FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
• PLD (Programmable Logic Device)

Integrated circuits can be completed by diagnostic systems, called BITE (Built-

In Test Equipment) and used to detect faults and so advise users about warning
situations, such as temperature increasing, power supply deficiency or bad
communications.

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IC – Integrated circuits Realization

ICs are realized starting from a wafer, a silicon disk which will be the substrate of
circuit. On this substrate are added and removed several levels through
lithographic masks which describe the level layout. Designer can remove levels
using acids on surface and next wash wafer.

Level types are:

• Semiconductor layers, used to create logic ports
• Insulation layers, used to separate several levels
• Metal layers, used to connect through conductive tracks.

Semiconductor layers are created by a method called photolithography, a

process in which we dope selected zones by a chemical substance called
photoresist and in a second time we expose the wafer to ultraviolet radiation.

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IC – Integrated circuits Realization

When the layer realization is finished, each chips on wafer is cut off and tested. The
last build process is inserted the integrated circuit in a package, a small box in plastic
or ceramic, and finally connect inputs and outputs with pins by welding.

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IC – Integrated circuits and PDB

Integrated circuits are mounted on computer cards by special sockets or permanent

welding (PDB).

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Chapter 05.09

MULTIPLEXING

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Multiplexers

In telecommunications and computer networks, the word “multiplexing”

indicates a process in which multiple analogue message signals or digital
data streams are combined into one signal, in order to be transmitted
through only one medium.
The multiplexing is the technique in which the available capacity of a
connection is shared among different channels.
By multiplexing, the number of signal lines and the number of components
used in a data communication can be reduced.
The device that executes the multiplexing process is called multiplexer, and
it has different meanings according to if it works in electronics or
telecommunications.
In aeronautical sector multiplexing technique is very used because it
increases the system functionality, reduces the installation costs and the
weight of wirings.

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Multiplexers

The complementary device to the multiplexer is the de-multiplexer. This device

had only one input and many outputs: the main function of de-multiplexers is
opposite to the task of a multiplexer.

De-multiplexers sort one input in many outputs. According to the values of

selection inputs, the input I is connected to one output.

Nowadays, multiplexers with more than two gates are very common.

For example a multiplexer with 8 inputs can manage 8 different signal.

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Multiplexers and Demultiplexer

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Modulation
Multiplexing techniques are used to share available bandwidth between more
sources. Bandwidth is the frequency range where a signal type can works without
create troubles or noises to other information sources.

The main technical way is by a carrier wave, a signal with known characteristics:
frequency, amplitude and phase.

Through modulation methods, we can insert another signal containing information

into carrier wave, so transmitted signal have source with known characteristics.

Typically, carrier wave has a sinusoidal and periodical behavior.

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AM (Amplitute Modulation)

The transmitted signal will have a sinusoidal trend as the carrier wave but distorted by
modulation.

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PM (Phase Modulation)

In the phase modulation the transmitted signal is shifted with respect to the original
one, all the other characteristics remain unchanged. When modulating is above zero,
the signal is more advanced than the carrier wave, while when the modulating is
below zero, the signal is late.

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FM (Frequency Modulation)

In frequency modulation, when the modulating is above zero, the signal has a
sinusoidal behaviour faster than the carrier wave, while when the modulating is
below zero, the signal is slower.

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Telecommunications – Digital signal

In digital world, we use discrete signals, i.e. a signal discretized in time and in
amplitude by sampling and quantization.

When modulating signal is a digital signal, we talk about digital modulation,

however carrier is always a sinusoid and it transmit an analogue signal.

A digital signal is identified by vector containing binary bits.

As in the case of analog modulation, a digital modulation works on amplitude,

phase and frequency and can thus be classified as:

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

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ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

Amplitude is congruent to modulating, so when it is 1, carrier wave is transmitted,

while when it is 0, the transmitted signal is null.

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PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

The signal is upside down when bits are equal to zero, that is when there is a phase shift of
180°, while no change occurs when we have higher levels.

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FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

When low logic status is present, the transmitted signal has frequency value half
than the carrier one; no change occurs in presence of high logic status.

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PCM (Pulse code modulation)

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation),

whose signal is the result of
sampling and quantization.

Modulator is an ADC, then

demodulator is a DAC.

PCM signal is a discretized form of

the original sinusoid and the circuit
used is Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC).

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Chapter 05.10

FIBER OPTICS

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Fiber optic

The fiber optic allows transferring information through the propagation of

light pulse. Thanks to the light it is possible to transmit more data in the
time unit than traditional transmission systems.
Exploiting frequencies placed in the visible light band the exchange of
digital data in a fiber optic is very fast; currently reached speeds are from 50
Mbit/s to 2.5 Gbit/s.

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Fiber optics

A fiber optic consists of three different parts:

1. A core, through which the light signal is sent. It consists of a silicon powder,
glass or plastic materials;
2. A cladding, covering the core and assuring the light reflection inside,
consisting of silicon powder of plastic materials.
3. A jacket (or coating), consisting of one or more layer, normally made of plastic
materials of silicon powder base, to protect the real fiber from mechanical
forces and from the humidity.

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Fiber optics

The fiber optic, apart from a high transmission speed, occupies a little space
and has low values of attenuation because the signal amplitude isn't affected
by important reduction along the path. The fiber optic is immune to
atmospheric disturbances as temperature and humidity variation; it is not
influenced by lightning discharge and is immune to electromagnetic induction,
without being affected by magnetic fields, induced by external currents.

Moreover it presents absence of cross-talk, without generating interferences

disturbing electronic devices in the proximity.

The fiber optic is an electrical insulating and has a good resistance to difficult
environment conditions, as the presence of chemical substances or high
temperatures.

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Fiber optics: Terminations

The end of a fibre is defined as “termination”. The termination permits the

connection to another fibre or to an active device.

An optic fiber data link system must have 3 main parts:

• A transmitter, which converts the input signal from a sensor into a light optical
signal. This signal must be suitable for transmission into the cable.

• A suitable cable, which is the mean in which the signal is transmitted through
light reflection.

• A receiver, which gets the light signal and converts it back into an electrical
signal. The receiver also amplify the optical signal without introducing noise or
distortions.

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Splices and Couplers

A Splice makes a permanent joint between two or more fibres used where there isn’t
intention to dismantle the connection/s. There are two types of these devices:
• Mechanical splices, in which the alignment of the fibres is achieved by crimping
ferrules that align the fibres under compression
• Fusion splices, which are made by melting the glass.
Instead, connectors are designed for repeated disconnection and reconnection. The
connectors have a known attenuation value and they are proof against dust and
moisture.
Couplers have the function to distribute or to recombine optical signals from several
fibres. In this case they work as splitters. They are very important because some data
link systems require multi-port connections and the signal attenuation tends to be
greater when multiple connections are being made. Instead, using couplers, one
input signal will be serving several outputs.

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Acceptance angle

Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle of entry, referred to the fiber
axis; beyond it the ray is subjected to a total reflection.
To the acceptance angle corresponds an acceptance cone. The amplitude of that
cone determines an important parameter, called numerical aperture of the fiber.

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N.A. (Numerical Aperture)

The numerical aperture of a fiber, indicated with NA, doesn't depend on

geometrical dimensions but depends only on refraction indexes of core and
cladding.
Bigger is the difference among indexes, bigger will be the quantity of light
accepted by the fiber, on equal emission.
The numerical aperture is always less than 1. At its increasing, the light will be
reflected more times inside the fiber.
Fibers with medium low numerical apertures, about 0.1, are typically used in
high speed transmission, very directive sources (as led-laser and diodes) and
analogue transmission as intercommunication systems and video signals.
Fibers with high numerical apertures are typically glass plastic fibers, used in
not very directive sources, digital transmission and light transmission to
illuminate gears and cockpit.

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Avionics field
Aeronautical realizations of fiber optics concern principally:

• Lighting system
• Wirings for video data transmission
• Communication systems on board
• Flight controls application (Flight-By-Light).

Nowadays, fiber optics are widely used in the IFE (in flight entertainment) system
and the illumination distribution.

However, their rigidity make them less suitable in helicopters, where the
vibrations are a problem difficult to solve. To understand it, take in considerations
when wire must be bended to bypass an obstacle: the bend radius is computed in
precise way to still obtain the total refraction, so a small difference in angle can
make the fiber optic unusable.

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Propagation modes

Guided propagation can be divided in two main categories:

• Single mode
• Multimode

In the single mode the signal is transmitted in linear way. This optic fiber has a core
smallest than multimodal one and are more faster. It also have not modal dispersion
problems and so can cover long distance. However, for this reason, these devices are
expensive, because they must be more precise.

In Aviation we prefer the multimode: it is the common mode, where different signals
are propagated by different modes at the same time, each one with a personal
reflection angle and also its own fixed speed rate.

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Propagation modes

When reflection angle is small, bounce frequency is high and signal tend to have
a slow transmission speed. This technology is called step index.

If this bounce frequency grows too much, we incur in the modal dispersion:
neighbor pulses of same sources are overlapping themselves. In signals theory
this problem is called intersymbol interference (ISE).

To solve this problem, it’s possible to use fiber optics with reflection index
graduated from the center core to the cladding: in this way the ray is curved in
soft way to create a sinusoid and so minimized the modal dispersion. This
technology is called graded index.

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Propagation modes

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Chapter 05.11

ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS

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Displays

The monitor is a “raster” device whose screen is divided into a rectangular matrix
of elements, called pixels. Each pixel can take a different color among which
available for the monitor, and consequently a picture is formed on the display. A
color monitor is based on additive synthesis of three main colors: red, green and
blue.
The different types of monitors depend on the technique used to realize them:
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3. PDP (Plasma Display Panel)
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode)

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CRT (Cathod Ray Tube)

The cathode ray tube technology was invented in the first years of 1900, but it is
still now widely used, because it is cheap, reliable and versatile.

The cathode ray tube is based on proprieties of some compounds called

“phosphors”, which emit light when affected to an electron quantity.

A cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube whose extremities are fitted with particular
devices called electron guns.

Each pixel of a CRT monitor is made of 3 tiny fluorescent points, which aren’t
visible to the eye.

These 3 points are of 3 different colors: one is red, one is green and one is blue.

The 3 electron guns, one for each color, emit 3 different electron beams that cover
the whole monitor.

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LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
The CRT technology has been gradually replaced by the new modern Liquid Cristal
Display technology (LCD).
The LCDs have several positive qualities:
• High resolution
• Time and space uniformity
• They are tiny and light
• They utilize a low power.

However the LCDs have some defects:

• A time resolution very low, which causes problems with dynamic images
• Low luminance and low chromatic contrast
• The set of color is reduced than CRTs
• They are more expensive than CRTs.

The main characteristic of molecules of liquid crystal is the possibility of being

arranged in more levels.

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PDP (Plasma Display Panel)

The plasma technology is based on fluorescent light. In each cell of the screen there
is a gas that is able to modify its characteristics when it is hit by an electrical field.

Appling a tension the gas becomes a plasma substance producing ultraviolet and
invisible light.

Also in this case the external part of the screen is covered with RGB phosphors.

The PDP technology permits to realize large dimension monitors.

The PDPs haven’t high resolution, but they have big luminance contrast. They
aren’t sensitive to environmental light and they are cheap and durable.

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)

An important device is the LED (Light Emitting Diode). LEDs utilize optical proprieties of
some semiconductor materials and they are based on the semiconductor diode.
They produce photons through the recombination of electron-hole couples into a zone of
recombination through two regions of the diode drugged with impurities. When the
diode is switched on, electrons recombine with holes. The energy produced is released in
the form of light, this physical phenomenon is called electroluminescence.
LEDs are more utilized in each application where it’s essential to have:

• High reliability and efficiency

• Long life

• Low consumption.

Applications of LEDs are multiple: in infra-red remote control, in light bulbs, for back-
lighting of LCDs, in traffic lights and in stop beacons of cars, lighting, luminous billboard.
It is important to remember that LEDs are “reversible machines”.

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Chapter 05.12

ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES

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ESD (Electro Static Discharge)

An electrostatic discharge, commonly called ESD, is the sudden and momentary

electric current, which flows through a material normally insulating.

The most common example of an electrostatic discharge is the lightning.

For the generation of a lightning it is needed a charges difference in a cloud or

between a cloud and the ground.

It's to note that the value of static electricity which can be generated varies a lot
according to the humidity level of the environment.

In fact high values of humidity reduce the electrostatic voltage that can be
produced because the humid air, unlike dry air, contains a high concentration of
water steam which helps to dissipate electrical charges.

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Triboelectric series

The triboelectric effect is an electrical phenomenon consisting of charges

transfer and consequently of the voltage generation, among different materials
when they are rubbed each other.

Different materials can be collected in a table, called triboelectric series, in base

to the polarity and intensity of the charge acquired after the rubbing.

A material in the table top tends to give electrons and so to charge positively.

Those at the bottom tend to accept electrons and consequently to charge itself
negatively.

From this table can be derived different material couples.

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Awareness

When the operator touches the circuit with the fingers there will be a flow of
current from the body to the component. In this case an electrostatic discharge is
created.

To avoid the arising of electrostatic discharges that can damage sensitive

components some expedients are taken by the operating people. Those expedients
imply the use of special antistatic material like wristbands, containers, etc…

In order to recognize devices and zones sensitive to electrostatic discharges an

appropriate label is used. Characteristic symbols can be different according to the
nation and to the norms adopted, civil or military. Generally in any case dominates
the yellow color for the background with texts and symbols in black.

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Precautions

To prevent the arising of ESD damage during the installation and removal of
electronic cards it is appropriate to follow a series of particular precautions.

During the installation and removal operations of printed circuits connected to LRU
(Line Replaceable Unit) it is opportune to connect the cable to the grounding of the
destination unit and to connect the other extreme to the wrist of the operator so
human body and work bench reach the same potential.

It is very important to use only grounding cables with a resistor on the top connected
to the grounding superior to 1MΩ.

Since the LRU contains devices sensitive to electrostatic discharges, it may be

equipped with metallic walls.

When operating on electronic cards installed on those lines, it is necessary to use

dust lids, preferably of conductive or antistatic type.

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Chapter 05.13

SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

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Awarness of restriction
In avionics, due to the introduction of modern technologies, it becomes
necessary to design some forms of software management.

All software of systems are subjected to a number of lifecycles, which include:

• Initiation
• Requirements
• Design
• Code and implementation
• Integration and test
• Installation
• Operation and maintenance.

Among these phases the most important is the integration and test, which
checks the software according to its specification.

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Awarness of restriction

Among these phases the most important is the integration and test, which checks the
software according to its specification. The aim of these testing is to determine that all
data are correctly processed, in order to get a correct output. Test and validation process
take place in several months before its implementation.

The testing should include:

• Typical data, which will verify the commonly used program paths
• Unusual but valid data that will test the program paths used to process exceptions
• Incorrect or inappropriate data, which will verify error routines

Before that the software is installed, it has to go through a software validation process,
which is approved by the regulatory authorities: they describe it in the document
“Software Consideration in Airborne System and Equipment Certification”. This process
can involve several months of testing and all was documented (fails instead).

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Awarness of restriction

Another very important aspect about the aircraft software is the

documentation. The documentation is a continuous process, which begins
with the software definition and involves collecting storing and other
records associated with the data processing system.
Generally the documentation should include:

• A description of the system

• A description of the program
• A definition of possible problem
• Operator instructions
The software, as all mechanical elements, has a part and serial number that
are specific to the application for which they are used.

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Chapter 05.14

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

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EMC (ElectronMagnetic-Compatibility)

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the subject which studies not-intentional

generation, transmission and receiving of electromagnetic energy.

The aim is to grant the correct operation. In this contest an electronic device will
result environment compatible if result immune to environmental damage and will
be able to limit emissions in the environment.

Every electromagnetic source produces a signal which, through a coupling course,

reaches another electromagnetic device as receiver. That device elaborates the
signal received obtaining a useful signal or a disturbance. In the first case, the
transmission has got a good ending, instead in the second case there was
interference.

An Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is represented by an intentional or

unintentional electromagnetic disturbance that interrupts, obstructs or degrades
the effective performance of electronic/electrical equipment.

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EI (ElectroMagnetic-Interference)

To prevent interferences exist possible solutions:

1. Limit the transmitter emissions reducing the signal intensity that gives arise
to the emission
2. Make the propagation path inefficient, in order to reduce the possibility of
transmitting undesired signals
3. Make the interference signals coupling less efficient screening the receiver.
4. Make a good bonding between all parts of the airframe in order to have the
same electrical power.

Responsible governments for EMC norms are:

• CEI (Comitato Elettrotecnico Italiano) in Italy
• ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in EU
• BSI (British Standards Institute) in England
• FCC (Federal Communications Commission) in USA.

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Emission of boarding circuit

The problem of emissions of circuit boards, with consequent problems of local

susceptibility on the board or adjacent circuits, has having always more
importance, especially considering modern technology tendencies of higher
speed of data transmission, higher frequencies and, in the same time, greater
density of components.
A particular instrument called spectrum analyzer is used to measure the
emission of magnetic field.

Emissions of circuit boards can occur in two ways:

1. Differential mode radiation.

2. Common mode radiation.

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Emission of boarding circuit

The problem of emissions of circuit boards is a very important problem.

Emissions of circuit boards can occur in two ways:

• Differential mode radiation: is due to the current flow in loops made by the
conductors of the circuit board, acting as little antennas and irradiating magnetic
field. To minimize the emission of the circuit board you can act as follows:
- Reducing the current
- Reducing the emission frequency
- Reducing the antenna area.

• Common mode radiation: is due to cables that compose the system when they are
connected to a board. To control the common mode current you can:

- Minimize the voltage feeding the connection cable

- Insert in series to the cable an impedance of high value
- Short cut the common mode current through the grounding
- Screening the cable.

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SAR (Specific Absorption Rate)

To measure the electromagnetic energy absorption by a biological tissue is usually

used a parameter called SAR (Specific Absorption Rate), which expresses the
absorbed power per mass unit [W/kg] and is given by:

In the formula σ indicates the conductibility of the biologic tissue [S/m], ρ indicates
the density
of the biologic tissue [kg/m3] and E the internal electric field, specifically the peak
value
measured in [V/m].
The rise of temperature is very high and the penetration depth is low in tissues of high
water content like muscles, internal organs and skin; instead the absorption is lower in
tissues of low content of water, like fat and bone.
Reflections in areas which separate tissues of high and low water content can produce
stationary waves and the generation of hot zones.

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Chapter 05.15

TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/DIGITAL AIRCRAFT

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ACARS - System

ACARS (Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System) is an

automatic data link system for transmission between aircraft and ground station
and vice versa.

It increases a lot performances connected to automatic communications from

and to the aircraft, as information on flight routes, technical and logistic aspects
of a flight and more over, reducing the crew's work load.

ACARS consists of a high speed communication system totally automated and

based on a technique of VHF radio of digital type. In more modern applications a
satellite technology is applied to send and receive signal to the aircraft, replacing
or supporting traditional system based on land stations.

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ECAM - EICAS

EICAS (Engine Indication and Crew alerting System) system is used to display in
the cabin information concerning on board engines and devices, with a system
of engine failure warning. In case of failure the crew hasn’t to perform any
corrective action.

ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring) system is similar to EICAS

but unlike EICAS a part from displaying information regarding on board
engines and devices, in case of failure ECAM can displays corrective actions to
be taken and eventual consecutive operative limitations.

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ECAM page

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Chromatic Classification

This chromatic classification of priorities is used not only in alphanumerical indications but also
in engine instruments, in which parameter indication of each instrument changes according to
the state.

All red color messages are followed by an aural tone, acoustic advisor in the cabin and the
lightening of a WARNING light, placed in front of each seat of the cabin. In the same way also
yellow or sometimes amber color messages will be followed by an acoustic advisor and by the
lightening of a CAUTION light, placed near the WARNING light.

WARNING and CAUTION lights, once activated, must be pressed to turn off the light message,
setting it in this way for future signals. The message related to the alarm condition is not lost,
but remains in EICAS display until the condition that has generated it persists, or after the pilot
manual cancellation.

Caution are no immediately dangerous situation.

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Chromatic Classification

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EFIS Display

EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System) identifies the set of devices and
electronic displays intended to represent with graphic symbols flight and navigation
information. A typical EFIS system consists of:

• Electronic displays
• Control panels
• Processing units

EFIS system can be split in two categories according to the information provided:
• EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator) or PFD (Primary Flight Display) for
attitude information
• EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator) or ND (Navigation Display) to
display typical information concerning navigation and flight planning.

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EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator)

EADI indicator is the electronic equivalent of ADI.

EADI reproduces information about attitude associated to navigation information.
It has a single display mode in which the graphic indication of an artificial horizontal
predominates, where the sky is represented by the blue color and the ground is
brown.
Usually in the left part of the display there is the speed indication while on the right
there are altitude and vertical speed.
Two bars are integrated into the instrument: a horizontal bar and a vertical one;
they are associated to LOC GS and ILS indications of the system or to the eventual
autopilot.
In the upper part there is generally an announcer panel through which adding
information can be displayed.

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EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator)

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EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator)

The EHSI presents more than

one mode. The most common
are:
• ILS mode
• PLAN mode
• MAP mode
• ARC mode (semicircular
view)
• VOR mode
• WEATHER RADAR

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FSM (Flight Management System)

The FMS (Flight Management System) is an avionic system that integrates a

database and the functions of calculating the position, of the flight planning and
monitoring of performance in an aircraft.

It provides a centralized control which allows the crew to access many features
implemented in avionic systems, such as the selection of frequencies for
communication and navigation, the selection of transponder codes, activation
and deactivation of main installations, such as the IRS, and many others.

FMS system generally consists of:

• One or two computers to manage and control information, called FMC (Flight
Management Computer)
• Two user interfaces, called CDUs (Control Display Units)
• Control panels.

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FSM (Flight Management System)

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GPS (Global Positioning System)

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a global navigation satellite system, which

allows determining the user position in every corner of the Earth, using a
constellation of Earth orbit satellites. GPS system consists of three different
parts called segments:

1. Space segment: consists of a constellation of 31 base satellites on 6 orbits of

low eccentricity. Each satellite emits a signal to the ground in a frequency
band on 1.2 and 1.5 GHz. Satellites have an operative life of 7 years.

2. Control segment or ground segment: if the orbit varies, the control station
sends a correction signal to the satellite witch returns to the correct orbit
using engines;

3. User segment: represented by the position receiver of the user, which is a

portable GPS. It’s made of an antenna, a processor, a display and a high
stability clock.

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GPS (Global Positioning System)

GPS working principle is quite simple and is based on the time spent by the signal
going from the satellite antenna to the ground receiver one. The procedure used
to calculate the position is called trilateration.

Every satellite transmits a message to the ground, which consists of three parts:
one called Almanac that contains data concerning the orbit and satellite state;
another one called Ephemeris that contains data concerning the astronomic
position; the third part is the time.

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GPS (Global Positioning System)

The receiver at the ground receives the transmitted signal and measures the delay
of synchronization, between the satellite clock and its internal clock, representing
the time spent by the signal going from the satellite antenna to the GPS receiver at
the ground.

Multiplying that time for the speed of propagation of the electromagnetic waves,
which is the same of the light in the vacuum about 300000 km/s, we obtain the
distance between satellite and receiver at the ground.

In that way knowing the correct position of at least 3 satellites and the time spent
by the signal to reach the receiver is possible to determine the position in the space
of the receiver.

Principal sources of error, which compromise the accuracy of the signal, are due to
error in calculating due to the imprecision of some component of the system. These
errors are partially compensated using the additional position line to determine the
position.

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IRS (Inertial Reference System)

IRS (Inertial Reference System), on which the so called inertial navigation is based, is a
help to the navigation based on the determination of the position of the aircraft
during the flight using independent sensors, instead of external reference sources.

An IRS succeeds in determining its own position analyzing the information coming
from a list of 3 gyroscopes and 2 or 3 accelerometers referred to fundamental axes of
the aircraft.

The core of the system is represented by the inertial platform on which

accelerometers (piezoresistance) and gyroscopes are installed. Accelerometers are
aligned to north-south and east-west direction.

Sometimes there is also a third accelerometer aligned to the vertical axis.

The operative principle is based on the integration of acceleration values along

fundamental axis recorded by the inertial platform.

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IRPM (IRS Control Panel)

To do the alignment of the inertial platform is necessary to set the selector in ALIGN
position (10 min.) with aircraft not in motion.

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TCAS (Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System)

The transponder informs the crew on board about the presence of other aircraft
around in the airspace. If the receiver identifies a potential threat, in the cabin is
generated both an audio tone and a visual alarm.

The TCAS transceiver periodically interrogates the potential transponders on board

to the other aircraft to identify the presence of the airplane and to recognize its
features.

All TCAS systems must be compatible with transponders capable of operating in S

mode. It's to be kept in mind that all aircraft equipped with a transponder in A, C, S
mode will be detected by the TCAS.

Instead aircraft not equipped with a transponder won't be identified.

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TCAS (Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System)

• The transponder informs the crew on board about the presence of other
aircraft around in the airspace. If the receiver identifies a potential threat, in
the cabin is generated both an audio tone “Traffic Advisory” and a visual
alarm.

• The TCAS transceiver periodically interrogates the potential transponders on

board other aircraft to identify the presence of the airplane and to recognize
its features.

• All TCAS systems must be compatible with transponders capable of

operating in S mode. It's to be kept in mind that all aircraft equipped with a
transponder in A (squawk code), C (pressure altitude information), S
(automatic collision avoidance) mode will be detected by the TCAS. Instead
aircraft not equipped with a transponder won't be identified.

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TCAS (Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System)

The first generation of TCAS is the TCAS 1 is able to monitor traffic

approaching within a radius of 40 NM from the aircraft, as well as providing
approximate information on detection and altitude of the aircraft on a collision
course. This version is not able to supply information on corrective actions.

The second generation is represented by TCAS 2 which, besides to have the

same functions as the previous generation, is able to provide information on
corrective actions in the vertical plane. The TCAS system 2 is used in
commercial aviation.

The latest generation of the system is the TCAS 3, which combines the
characteristics of TCAS 2 and the opportunity to provide corrective actions to
be implemented in the horizontal plane.

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Cabin System

Cabin = the aircraft section with passengers + cockpit

In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) system is a system that collect all the devices and
networks used to provide facilities.

Example: set of screens used to show movies.

To guarantee a correct safety level, power supply architecture and managing

systems used for the flight mission are shared with the entertainment systems.

Also, IFE is severely certified as the other main systems.

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Cabin System

Modern aircraft offers to passengers a personal television (PTV), mounted on

seatback and equipped to access to a media server.

A media server is database which offers multimedia contents through an

Audio/Video On Demand (AVOD) system and an intern network to connect it to
all the clients.

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 Module 05 – Digital Techniques, Electronic Instrument System

CAT. B2
05
Information System

This unit is dedicated to information acquisition, record, storage, monitor and

report.

It doesn’t include components installed with other systems and shared for other
common uses.

Goal: - improve the monitoring procedures (warning, …)

- optimize the maintenance management
- reducing the costs

Examples: parameters flight speed or engine temperatures.

All data are organized into redundant databases.

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 Module 05 – Digital Techniques, Electronic Instrument System

Thank you for your attention.

Pag.