Module 01

MATHEMATICS

Pag.
 Module 1 – Mathematics

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 Table of contents

1.1 Arithmetic

1.2 Algebra

1.3 Geometry

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Chapter 01.01

ARITHMETIC

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Arithmatical terms and signs

The study of mathematics starts with arithmetic, which represents its

foundations. Arithmetic allows us to know the properties of numbers and of the
four main operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Natural numbers are the most common numbers we know, those we use to
count any set of objects. This set of numbers, including zero, contains all the
non-negative integers. The set of natural numbers is indicated by the symbol N.

Adding or multiplying two natural numbers the result is always a natural

number. In case of subtraction, it is also possible to use negative numbers. The
so created set that enclose integers positive numbers, negative numbers, plus
zero, is called set of integers or set of relative numbers. The set of integers is
indicated by the symbol Z.

In case of division, it is also possible to introduce fractional numbers and the so

created set that enclose integers plus fractional numbers, is called set of rational
numbers. The set of rational numbers is indicated by the symbol Q.

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Addition

The four basic math operations with numbers are: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. They are indicated by the following symbols: plus
(+) is the addition symbol, minus (-) is the subtraction symbol, multiplied by (x) is
the multiplication symbol and divided (÷) or over (/) is the division symbol.

Addition is the operation that combines two generic numbers, called addends,
and associates to them a third number, called sum or total, obtained counting as
many units as those indicated by the second addend after the first addend.
The addition has commutative, associative, and dissociative properties:

• Commutative property : changing the order of the addends the sum does not
change.

23 + 5 + 1700 = 1700 + 23 + 5 = 1728

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Addition

• Associative property: replacing two or more addends with their sum the
result does not change

127 + 3 + 40 + 20 = 127 + 3 + 40 + 20
= 130 + 60 = 190

• Dissociative property: replacing one addend with one or more addend whose
sum is the replaced addend the result of the addition does not change

57 + 22 = 50 + 7 + 20 + 2 = 79

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Multiplication

Multiplication is the operation by which two generic numbers, called factors or

multiplicand and multiplier, are associated to a third one, called product,
obtained adding the units of the first one as many times as the units of the
second one.

Multiplication has commutative, associative, dissociative and distributive

properties :

• Commutative property: changing the order of factors the product does not
change

5 ∗ 25 = 25 ∗ 5 = 125

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Multiplication

• Associative property: replacing two or more factors with their product the
result does not change

5ถ
∗ 2 ∗ 3ถ
∗ 9 = 5 ∗ 2 ∗ 3 ∗ 9 = 10 ∗ 27 = 270

• Dissociative property: replacing one factor with one or more factors whose
product is the replaced factor the result of the multiplication does not change

25 ∗ 14 = 25 ∗ 2 ∗ 7 = 350

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Multiplication

• Distributive property: to multiply the terms of an addition or of a subtraction

it is possible to calculate the final product of the given factor for each single
term of the addition or subtraction, and then sum or subtract them

• 6 ∗ 10 + 4 = 6 ∗ 10 + 6 ∗ 4 = 84

• 4 ∗ 2 + 5 = 8 + 20 = 28

• 6+4 ∗ 3+5 =
• 6∗3 + 6∗5 + 4∗3 + 4∗5 =
• 18 + 30 + 12 + 20 = 80

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Multiplication: graphical method

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Multiplication: examples

• 165 ∗ 3 = 100 ∗ 3 + 60 ∗ 3 + 5 ∗ 3 =
300 + 180 + 15 = 495

• 247 ∗ 58 = 200 + 40 + 7 ∗ 50 + 8 =
200 ∗ 50 + 200 ∗ 8 + 40 ∗ 50 + 40 ∗ 8 +
7 ∗ 50 + 7 ∗ 8 =
10000 + 1600 + 2000 + 320 + 56 = 14326

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Subtraction

Subtraction is the operation of taking two generic numbers, called minuend and
subtrahend, and associating a third one, called difference, obtained subtracting
from the minuend as many units as those indicated by the subtrahend.

• Subtraction is characterized by invariance: adding or subtracting the same

number from the two terms of a subtraction the result does not change.

148 − 18 = 130 ⟹ 148 + 2 − 18 + 2 = 130

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Division

The number that is divided is called dividend, while the other number that
divides it is called divisor. The result of division is called quotient. It represents
the number of times that the divisor is “contained” in the dividend. In some
cases, the quotient can have a remainder. It represents the part of the dividend
that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Division is characterized by invariance and distributive property:
• Invariance: dividing or multiplying by the same number the two terms of a
division the result does not change

150 ÷ 50 = 3 ⟹ 150 ÷ 10 ÷ 50 ÷ 10 = 3

• Distributive property: to divide the terms of an addition or of a subtraction by

a number it is possible to divide each single term of the addition or of the
subtraction by the given divisor and then sum or subtract them.

150 + 2 ÷ 25 = 7 ⟹ 150 ÷ 25 + 25 ÷ 25 = 7

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Arithmetic expression

An arithmetic expression is a set of two or more numbers separated by

operation signs and possibly by the necessary brackets.
Every time you have to solve an expression it is necessary to do the different
operations on the numbers in a specific order.

The sequence of operations is:

1. Do the operations indicated inside the brackets.
2. Do multiplications and divisions.
3. Do additions and subtractions.

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Fraction and decimals

The result of a division of two integers is a fraction. A common fraction

represents a portion or a part of a given quantity. A fraction is made of two
numbers. The number above the fraction symbol is called numerator, while the
number under it is called denominator.

𝑎
𝑥=
𝑏

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Proper and improper fraction

When the numerator of a fraction is smaller than the denominator, the fraction
is defined as proper fraction. Therefore, the value of a proper fraction is always
less than one.

3
𝑥= Example of a proper fraction
5

If the numerator is greater than the denominator, the fraction is defined as

improper. In this case the value of the fraction is more than one.

7
𝑥= Example of an improper fraction
5

When numerator and denominator are the same, the quotient of the fraction is
one.

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Fraction properties

• The addition of two fractions can be done only when the two fractions have
the same denominator. In this case it is sufficient to add the numerators to
obtain the sum and then the fraction can be reduced to its lowest terms.

• When the fractions do not have the same denominator it is necessary to find
the lowest common denominator. The lowest common denominator is the
least common multiple of the factors of the denominator.

• The product of fractions can be calculated by multiplying the numerators of

each fraction to obtain the product numerator and then multiplying
denominators among them to obtain the product denominator.

• The value of a fraction does not change if the same operation (multiplication
or division) is done both on the numerator and the denominator. This
property can be used to simplify multiplications between fractions.

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Fraction properties

• Applying the invariance property of division is possible to define a

fundamental law of fractions: multiplying and or dividing by the same
number both the numerator and the denominator of a fraction, its value does
not change. This property allows simplifying fractions made of great
numbers, thanks to the so-called reduction to lowest terms.

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Decimal numbers

To work with fractions is not always so easy; for this reason it is often better to
replace them with decimal numbers.
A common fraction can be converted into a decimal number, simply dividing the
numerator by the denominator.

3
= 0,75
4
The first number after the decimal point denotes tens, the second hundreds and
the third thousands.

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Decimal numbers properties

The addition of decimal numbers follows the same laws of integers after having
aligned on the same vertical line the points indicating the decimal number.

5,5 + 4,4 = 9,9

Multiplying decimal numbers, the decimal point is ignored at first and the
resulting integers are multiplied. After having calculated the product, the overall
number of figures to the right of the point of the multiplier and of the
multiplicand is counted: this number represents the number of figures to the left
of which the decimal point must be put in the product.

0,5 ∗ 0,03 = 0,015

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Factors and multiples

Multiplication and division allow us to introduce the concepts of multiple and

divisor of a number.
An integer A is multiple of another integer B if there is a third integer C that
multiplied by B gives as result A:

𝐴=𝐶∗𝐵

An integer A is divisor of a number B only if dividing B by A the quotient

obtained is an integer C and the remainder is zero:

𝐵÷𝐴 =𝐶 with reminder = 0

Prime numbers are those numbers that cannot be divided by any number except
themselves and one.
For example: 1, 3, 5, 7… A number that is not a prime number is called
composite.

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Factors and multiples

There are some useful rules to understand the divisors of a number looking at its
figures

• A number is divisible by 2 when ends with 0,2,4,6,8.

• A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its figures is divisible by 3.
• A number is divisible by 4 if the last two digits are 00, or if they form a
number that is multiple of 4, or if the second last figure is odd and the last
one is 2 or 6, or if the second last figure is even and the last one is 0,4,8.
• A number is divisible by 5 if its last figure is 0 or 5.

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Factors and multiples

Factorization, or prime decomposition, is the process by which the prime

numbers that are divisors of a given number are searched. To decompose into
prime numbers a number, it is necessary to divide it by its smallest prime divisor
and to continue this way until you obtain 1 as quotient.

Given two or more numbers a, b, c the smallest multiple in common is called

least common multiple.

Given two or more numbers a, b, c the largest common divisor share by them is
called greatest common divisor.

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Weights

Mass measures are used to find the quantity of matter contained in bodies.
The unit of measurement of International System is the gram (g).

In the British system the pound is the main unit to measure the mass (1 pound =
0,453 kg).

Weights can be obtained doing a multiplication: 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑔

Where “g” is the gravity acceleration = 9,81 m/s2

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Measures and conversion factors

Units of measurement are a standard for the measuring of physical quantities.

It is necessary to define standard systems of measurement with the aim to
facilitate the measuring: however in the world there are different units of
measurement.

There are different systems of measurement that are officially accepted; these
systems are based on different set of fundamental units.

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Measures and conversion factors

The International System is the most used and it has 7 main units:
• Meter: length.
• Kilogram: mass.
• Second: time.
• Ampere: intensity of current.
• Kelvin: temperature.
• Mole: quantity of material.
• Candle: luminous intensity.

Other systems, which are used in the aeronautical world, are the British and the
American systems.
A conversion of the units of different systems is the comparison between all
standards values.

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Measures and conversion factors

The following tables show main conversion factors.

1𝑚 = 0,001𝑘𝑚 = 39,37𝑖𝑛 = 3,28𝑓𝑡 = 1,09𝑦𝑑

1𝑚2 = 10000𝑐𝑚2
1𝑃𝑎 = 0,01𝑏𝑎𝑟
1𝑖𝑛 = 0.0254𝑚
1𝑦𝑑 = 0.917𝑚
1𝑓𝑡 = 0,305𝑚
1𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1,148𝑚𝑝ℎ

The scale is the ratio between the actual distances represented on a map, that is
the actual kilometres, and the material distances on the map, that is the
centimetres or millimetres on the sheet

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Scale, latitude and longitude

The latitude of a place is its north or south distance from

the Equator calculated in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Starting from the Equator, the distance to the north is
called north latitude, while the one to the south is called
south latitude.

The longitude of a place is its east or west distance from a

meridian of reference calculated in degrees, minutes and
seconds. The distance to the east, starting from the
meridian of reference, is called east longitude, while the
one to the west, always from the meridian of reference, is
called west longitude. By international convention, the
meridian of reference, that is 0 degrees of longitude, is the
one crossing the Greenwich observatory, an area of the
city of London in England.

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Ratio and proportion

Ratio is a method to compare one number to another one.

The ratio of two numbers A and B, with B different from zero, is the quotient. A
divided by B can also be expressed with the fraction A/B. In a ratio A/B, the
numbers A and B are called terms of the ratio.

Using again the properties of division it is possible to state that: multiplying or

dividing both terms of a ratio by the same number, different from zero, the ratio
remains the same.

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Ratio and proportion

A proportion is an equivalence relation between two ratios and is an easier

method to solve problems with ratios. The first and the third term of the
proportion are called antecedents, while the second and the fourth are called
consequents. Moreover, the first and the last term of the proportion are called
extremes, while the second and the third terms are called means.

The fundamental property of proportions is the following: in a proportion, the

product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.

3 ∗ 80
3 ∶ 4 = 𝑥 ∶ 80 ⟹ 𝑥= = 60
4

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Ratio and proportion properties

From the fundamental property it is possible to derive other useful properties

for determining an unknown term in a proportion:

• Property of permuting: in a proportion, exchanging the means between

them, or the extremes, the result is a new proportion.

• Property of inverting: in a proportion, exchanging each antecedent with its

consequent the result is a new proportion.

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Percentages

Percentages are often used to express a part of an integer in an easier way. The
symbol that indicates percentages is %.
Two fundamental definitions are useful to better understand the meaning of
percent:

• Directly proportional quantity

• Inversely proportional quantities.

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Proportionality

Two variables x and y are said to be proportional (or directly proportional) if

there is a functional relationship of the form:

𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 where k is a not null numerical constant

Two variables x and y are said to be inversely proportional if there is a functional

relationship of the form:

𝑘
𝑦= where k is a not null numerical constant
𝑥

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Perimeter, area and volumes

• The perimeter is the measure of the length of the contour of a plane figure.
To find the perimeter of a polygon it is necessary to sum its sides.

• The area is the measure of the extension of a two-dimensional segment of

space that is the measure of a surface. The area of a surface is a two-
dimension number, height and width, and is often expressed by surface
measures, like “square” meters.

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Triangle

A triangle is a polygon with three sides and three angles. The angle vertices are
called vertices of the triangle. The fundamental property of triangles is the
following: the sum of angles in a triangle is always 180 degrees. Each side of a
triangle is a base (b) and the segment of orthogonal line from that base to the
opposite vertex is a height (h).

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Area of triangle

The area of a triangle is given by the product of the base (a) by the height
divided by 2 :

ah
A=
2

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Area of triangle

The main kinds of triangle are :

1. Scalene triangle, which has three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
2. Isosceles triangle, which has two equal sides and two equal angles.
3. Equilateral triangle, which has three equal sides and three equal angles.

A special kind of triangle is the right triangle, which has an angle of 90 degrees,
which is a right angle.
An obtuse triangle is a triangle with an angle greater than 90 degrees.
An acute triangle is a triangle in which all angles are smaller than 90 degrees

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Triangle: Pitagora’s theorem

In a right triangle the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right
angle)is equal to the sum of the squares of the others two sides. The theorem
can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the side a, b, and c, often
called the “Pythagorean equation”.

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

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Triangle: Pitagora’s theorem

Example:

Given:

𝑎=3
b=4

Which is the value of c?

Remembering the Pythagorean equation 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

𝑐= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5

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Parallelogram: rectangle

A parallelogram is a polygon in which the opposite sides are parallel and equal in
length. The area of the parallelogram is given by the multiplication of the length
or base (a) of the parallelogram by the height (h).

𝐴 =𝑎∗ℎ

A rectangle is a parallelogram having all right angles. It is a quadrilateral with

opposite sides of equal lengths and four right angles. The area of the rectangle
can be found multiplying its base by its height.

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Parallelogram: square and rhombus

A square is a special parallelogram with four sides of equal length. The area of
the square is given by the same formula used for the parallelogram. Since all
sides of the square have the same length, the area of the square is given by the
square of the side (l):

𝐴 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑙 = 𝑙2
The rhombus is a special parallelogram with four sides of the same length. This
polygon has two orthogonal diagonals, a long diagonal (d1) and a short one (d2).
The area of the rhombus is given by the product of the diagonals divided by 2:

𝑑1 ∗ 𝑑2
𝐴=
2

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Parallelogram: Trapezium

The trapezium is a quadrilateral with two parallel sides. The two parallel sides
are also called bases of the trapezium: one is the greater base (B) and the other
is the smaller base (b). The other two sides are called oblique sides or simply
sides. If the two oblique sides are congruent, the trapezium is called isosceles
trapezium. If one of the two non-parallel sides is perpendicular to the base, the
trapezium is called right trapezium. Its area is given by :

𝐵+𝑏 ∗ℎ
𝐴=
2

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Circle

The polygon consisting of all the points of a circumference and of the internal
points is called circle, whose circumference is the contour.

It is a set of points in a plane equidistant from a given point from a

circumference. The given point is called center and the distance from the center
is the radius (r) of the circumference.

Each segment passing through the center of a circumference having its

extremes on the circumference is called diameter of the circumference.
The ratio of the circumference and the diameter (d) of a circle are always equal
to a fixed value indicated by the Greek character π (π = 3,14).

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Circle

• The circumference of a circle can be calculated multiplying by π the

diameter:

𝑐𝑖𝑟 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑
• The area of the circle is given by the square of the radius multiplied by π:

𝐴 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟2

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Volume: prism and cube

The volume or capacity is the amount of space occupied by a body. The volume
of a solid body is a numerical value used in describing the tridimensional space
occupied by the body.

A prism whose bases are two parallelograms is called parallelepiped. The

volume of a parallelepiped with rectangular base is given by the product of the
three dimensions, width (l), depth (p) and height (h):

𝑉 =𝜌∗𝑙∗ℎ
A cube is a parallelepiped in which the bases are squares. The volume of a cube
is given, as in the case of the rectangle parallelepiped, by the product of the
three dimensions. The three dimensions of a cube are equal (l); therefore the
volume corresponds to one cubed dimension:

𝑉 = 𝑙3

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Volume: pyramid

A solid delimitated by a polygon and laterally having as many triangles as the

number of the sides of the base polygon is called pyramid. The polygon
delimitating the pyramid is called base and the side triangles are the faces of the
pyramid. All the triangles share the same vertex, called vertex of the pyramid.
The height (h) is the distance between the vertex and the base.
The volume of a pyramid is calculated multiplying the area of the base by the
height of the pyramid and then the product is divided by 3:

𝐴∗ℎ
𝑉=
3

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Volume: cylinder

The cylinder is a solid created by the complete rotation of a rectangle around the
straight line of one of its sides. This straight line is the rotation axis and the side taken
into consideration for the revolution is the height (h) of the cylinder. The parallel side
designs the surface of the cylinder and the other two sides are the radius of the
cylinder and create the two base surfaces.

The volume of a cylinder can be calculated multiplying the area of a base by the
height of the cylinder:

𝑉 =𝐴∗ℎ

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Volume: cone

A cone is a solid created by the complete rotation of a right triangle around one
leg whose straight line is the rotation axis. This leg is the height of the cone. The
hypotenuse of this triangle designs the side surface. The other leg is the radius
of the cone.

The volume of a cone can be calculated multiplying the cone bases area by the
height (h), the product is then divided by 3:

𝐴∗ℎ
𝑉=
3

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Volume: sphere

A sphere is a solid created by the rotation of a semicircle around its diameter.

The semi-circumference that limits the semicircle creates the surface of the
sphere. The surface of the sphere is where a set of point in space are equidistant
from a given point called center. The distance of the center from whatever point
of the sphere is called radius (r) and all the meridians of the surface are
circumferences.

The surface of a sphere can be calculated multiplying four times the square of its
radius by π:

𝑆 = 4𝜋 ∗ 𝑟 2
The volume of the sphere is given by the cubed radius of the sphere multiplied
by π. The result obtained is then multiplied by (4/3):

4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟3
3
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Squares

The square of a number n is the raise of the same number to the second power,
which is a multiplication of the number by itself:

𝑛2 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑛 ⟹ 32 = 9
The square of a number has some properties:

• The square of a real number is always greater (or equal) than 0

• The square of any integer (n) can be represented by the sum:

1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯+ 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑛
• The square of any integer (n) is equal to the sum of n prime odd numbers:

42 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16

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Cubes and square roots

• The cube of a number n is the raise of the same number to the third power,
which is the multiplication of the number for three times:

𝑛3 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑛 ⟹ 23 = 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 = 8
• 𝑛
The symbol used for root extraction is 3. The number under the root
symbol is called radicand, while the number that represents the order of the
root is called exponent (n). The function of the root is to find the number
that, multiplied by itself for a number of times equal to the value of the
exponent, has the radicand as result:

4=2
The exponent of the root must always be indicated unless it is two. An irrational
number is indicated when the number cannot be expressed as a ratio of
integers.

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Chapter 01.02

ALGEBRA

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Algebra

Using zero as starting number, a positive value is assigned to all numbers

greater than zero and a negative value to those less than zero. In the line of
relative numbers, negative values are indicated by the sign minus while positive
values are indicated by the sign plus or by the absence of any sign.

Each writing containing operations to be done on relative numbers is called

algebraic expression. To calculate the value of an algebraic expression means
finding the relative number that represents the result of the indicated
operations.

To calculate the value of an algebraic expression it is necessary to follow the

following laws:

• if the expression does not contain any bracket, it is necessary to do powers

first, then multiplications and divisions and finally additions and
subtractions;
• if the expression contains brackets, first eliminate the inner ones, then the
external ones.

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Addition

When summing two or more numbers having the same sign, the sign is ignored
and the sum of values is calculated, then the sign common to the values is added
before of the result. In other terms, adding two or more positive numbers the
sum is a positive number, while adding two or more negative numbers their sum
is always a negative number.

Instead, when adding positive and negative numbers, the two numbers are
subtracted and then the positive or negative sign of the greatest number is
added. The result obtained adding or subtracting numbers with a sign, that is
relative numbers, is called algebraic sum of the numbers.

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Multiplication and division

The multiplication of relative numbers follows the same laws of the

multiplication of generic numbers. After having done the multiplication, the
product takes the sign established by the following 3 laws:

• The product of two positive numbers is always positive

• The product of two negative numbers is always positive
• The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.

As in the case of multiplication, the division of relative numbers follows the

same laws of the division of generic numbers. The sign of the quotient is
determined by the same laws used for the multiplication:

• The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive

• The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive
• The quotient of a negative and a positive number is always negative.

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Use of brackets

Brackets are used in mathematics to group the terms on which the same
operation must be done and to define priorities with reference to some
operations.

Brackets are always used in pairs of the same kind. Here is the increasing
hierarchical order of the brackets used in arithmetic: round brackets 3 , square
brackets 3 , and braces 3 .

The first operations to be done are those indicated between the inner brackets.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Powers

It is defined as power of a number A raised to the exponent n, the product of n

factors equal to A:

𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ⋯ 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
This power is indicated by the symbol A to the nth. The number A is called base
of the power.

Let’s define the main properties of powers:

• Whatever number raised to the power of zero, is always equal to one, with
the exception of zero that remains zero (or more precisely undetermined).
• The multiplication of two powers having the same base is a power with the
same base and having as exponent the sum of the exponents.
• The quotient of two powers having the same base, is a power with the same
base and as exponents the difference of exponents.
• The power of a power is a power having the same base and product of the
exponents as exponent.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Negative power

There are also powers with negative exponents (-n):

1
𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑎
The definition of a power permits to use fractional exponents (x/y), where x and
y are prime number between them.

𝑥
𝑦
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Negative power

Examples:

22 ∗ 24 2 2+4 26
= = 5=2
25 25 2

2
𝑥5 ∗ 𝑥4 2 = 𝑥 5+4 = 𝑥9 2 = 𝑥 18

−2 2
2 5 52 25
= = 2=
5 2 2 4

2
22 ∗ 23 2 = 2 3+2 = 210

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Linear equation

Equality between two algebraic expressions, containing one or more characters,

is called equation. The characters in an equation are called unknown. In an
equation, like in any other equality, the expressions to the left and to the right of
the sign equal are called first and second member of the equation. Solving an
equation means finding the set of its solutions.
The set of solutions of an equation is a set of real numbers. In general, the
following cases can be found:

• The set of solutions is empty. This means that replacing the unknown with
whatever number, the equation would transform into a false equality. In this
case the equation is defined as impossible.
• The set of solutions contains a finite number of elements that are the
solutions of the equation. In this case the equation is determinate.
• The set of solutions contains an infinite number of elements that are the
solutions of the equation. In this case the equation is indeterminate.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Linear equation

To solve the equations we have to move all the unknown at the left member.
When the unknown cross the equal symbol (=), we have to change the sign of
the unknown.

Then we have to sum the similar terms on both member of the equation.

At the end we have to divide both terms of the equation for the coefficient of
the unknown.

3𝑥 + 5 = 𝑥 − 2 ⟹ 3𝑥 − 𝑥 = −2 − 5 ⟹

7
⟹ 2𝑥 = −7 ⟹ 𝑥=−
2

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simultaneous equation

Simultaneous equations (also known as system of equations) are a set of

equations which have more than one unknown values. Questions involving
simultaneous equations require finding the unknowns. First, it has to represent
the equations in a clear form. Then we proceed with the following steps.

There are generally two methods to solving simultaneous equations:

• By substitution.
• By elimination.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simultaneous equation: substitution method

For example let’s consider:

2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5
ቊ
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7

In the method of substitution, it expresses “x” in terms of “y” in one equation (in
this case the second) and substitute it into the other:

𝑥 = 7 − 2𝑦

So we obtain:
𝑦=3
ቊ
𝑥=1

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simultaneous equation: elimination method

In the method of elimination, it can choose to eliminate x. To eliminate x, it

multiplies the second equation by the same number of x in the first equation; so
it cancels x by subtraction.
For example let’s consider:

2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5
൜ ⟶ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7 ⟶ 2 ∗ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2 ∗ 7 ⟹ 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 14
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7

Now let’s subtract the two equations:

2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 14 ⟶ 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 5 − 14
⟹ 𝑦=3

Now substituting the value of y in the second equation, it arrives at the same
conclusion:

𝑥=1

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Second degree equation

In mathematics a quadratic equation is an algebraic equation with one unknown

“x”, which is present with two as the maximum degree 𝑥 2 . In fact a quadratic
equation is a polynomial equation of the second degree. The generic form is:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 ≠ 0
“a” is called the quadratic coefficient, “b” is called the linear coefficient, and “c”
is the constant term or free term.
According to the fundamental law of algebra, the solutions of a quadratic
equation are always 2.

It is possible to distinguish two cases:

• In the set of real numbers the equation admits 2 solutions, which can be
coincident, or none.
• In the set of complex numbers the equation admits always 2 solutions,
which can be coincident.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Second degree equation

A quadratic equation is called complete equation when all its coefficients are
different from 0. It can be solved as follows:

1. All terms must be written at the first member, which is the one at the left of
the equal symbol (=).
2. It must write the generic form of the equation.
3. It must apply the resolving formula:

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟶ 𝑥=
2𝑎

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Second degree equation

In mathematics there are also the incomplete quadratic equations. Both these
equations can be solved according to the generic process and/or using faster
methods.

• 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = 0

It can be solved breaking out the first member: 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0

The solutions can be found putting all terms equal to 0:

𝑥=0 ; 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0

• 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 = 0

The term “c” must be put at the second member and then it can be divided by
“a”:
−𝑐 −𝑐
𝑥2 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = ±
𝑎 𝑎

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Binary and other applicable numbering system

Mathematics is based on numbers. In order to count a certain number of items

first of all it is necessary to choose a notation. A notation is a set of symbols and
rules for representing numbers.
The binary notation is a positional notation that uses two figures to represent
numbers: 0 and 1. All digital electronic devices are based on the binary notation.

In order to understand the value of a binary figure, that is “translate” it into

decimal notation, you just have to use the fundamental equation, keeping in
mind that the different 𝑏 𝑛 factors in this case represent powers of 2.

101
= 1 ∗ 22 + 0 ∗ 21 + 1 ∗ 20 = 5

1001000
= 1 ∗ 27 + 0 ∗ 26 + 0 ∗ 25 + 1 ∗ 24 + 0 ∗ 23 + 0 ∗ 22 + 0 ∗ 21 + 0 ∗ 20
= 128 + 16 = 144

Example of the opposite operation from decimal system into binary: 42=101010

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Binary and other applicable numbering system

Scientific notation is a way of indicating a value as the product of a number

between 1 and 9. 99 by a base ten.

To express a number using the scientific notation, the number that must be
transformed is multiplied by the power of ten, so many times as the number of
figures after which the decimal point must be moved.

The choice of the power to use is connected to the kind of quantities in use, but
generally it is better to reduce all numbers to the unit. This operation does not
change the value of the number, but only the way in which it is written.

The first operation is writing down the numbers to multiply in scientific

notation.

0,275 = 2,75 ∗ 10−1 30000 = 3 ∗ 104

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Monomial and polynomials

A monomial is a number, a variable or a product of a number and a variable.

𝑎2 , 5𝑎2
A polynomial is a sum of monomials where each monomial is called a term.

𝑎2 + 5𝑎5 + 27𝑎3

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Monomial and polynomials

Multiplication of two binomials

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑑 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑

There are particular cases reported hereafter:

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

𝑎+𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Polynomial factorization

Factorization of polynomials or polynomial factorization refers to factoring

a polynomial with coefficients in a given field or in the integers into irreducible
factors with coefficients in same domain. Polynomial factorization is one of the
fundamental tools of the computer algebra systems.

𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎2
= 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎
𝑎

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎7
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐 6
𝑎𝑏𝑐

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Logarithms: definition and properties

Logarithm with z base of a number (x) is the exponent to which the base of the
logarithm must be raised in order to produce the number:

𝑦 = log 𝑧 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑦

The main proprieties of logarithms are:

• The logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of the
logarithms of the same numbers:

log 𝑚 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = log 𝑚 𝑎 + log 𝑚 𝑏

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Logarithms: definition and properties

• The logarithm of the quotient of two numbers is equal to the difference of

the logarithms of the same numbers:
𝑎
log 𝑚 = log 𝑚 𝑎 − log 𝑚 𝑏
𝑏
• The logarithm of 1, with any base, is 0:

log 𝑚 1 = 0
• The logarithms of the inverse of “a” is the opposite of the logarithm of “a”:

1
log 𝑚 = − log 𝑚 𝑎
𝑎
• The logarithms of a number raised to the “k” power is equal to the product
of the exponent (k) and the number’s logarithm:

log 𝑚 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑘 log 𝑚 𝑎
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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Logarithms: definition and properties

• The logarithm of k-root of “a” is equal to the quotient between the

logarithm and k:
𝑘
1
log 𝑚 𝑎 = log 𝑚 𝑎
𝑘
• The logarithm of “a”, with also “a” as base, is 1:
log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1

• The following identity is true:

𝑎 log𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Logarithms

Logarithms can be calculated with any positive base (different from 1); the bases
generally used are:

• Base 10 (decimal logarithms): log10, log, Log

• Base “e” (natural logarithms): ln

• Base 2 (binary logarithms): log2

The logarithms are valid only when the argument is above 0. “Log 0” has no
meaning (and no value).

• Log 0 = No Value

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Chapter 01.03

GEOMETRY

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction: angle

An angle is a portion of a plane between two half-lines having the same origin.
The half-lines are called sides of the angles, while their origin is called vertex of
the angle.

The magnitude of an angle can be measured using several systems:

• Sexagesimal measure
• Centesimal measure.
• Radiant measure.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction: angle

According to the sexagesimal measure the round angle is divided into 360 parts
corresponding to the standard of measurement called sexagesimal degree,
indicated by the symbol “°”. This name is due to the fact that the subunits of
the degree, the minute and the second are divided by sixty.

According to the centesimal measure, the degree, called grad, represents one
hundredth part of a right angle. With this system the round angle is divided into
400 equal parts and the submultiples of the centesimal degree represent
decimal fractions.

A simpler measure for the magnitude of angles often used in physics is the
radian. According to the radian measure the round angle measures 2π, as we
will see the circumference with radius r is equal to 2πr and therefore the radian
is the angle created in correspondence of an arc with a length equal to the radius
of the circumference.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction: angle

An angle con be defined in different way, according to the measure.

• An angle defined by one single half-line is called round angle

• An angle defined by two half-lines on the same straight line is called straight
angle
• An angle defined by two orthogonal half-lines is called right angle
• An angle smaller than a right angle is called acute angle
• An angle greater than a right angle is called obtuse angle.
• Considering an angle, its complementary angle is the difference to 90°,
instead its supplementary angle is the difference to 180 °of the considered
angle.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction: angle

Example:

Consider the angle 16°14’ 16’’.

Its complementary (to 90°) angle is:

89° 59’ 60’’ - 16°14’ 16’’ = 73°45’ 44’’

Instead its supplementary (to 180 °) angle is:

179° 59’ 60’’- 16°14’ 16’’ = 163°45’ 44’’

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction: isometry, homothety and

similarity
In geometry there are three main simple constructions: isometry, homothety,
similarity

An isometry is a “distance-preserving map” between two metric spaces. Each

rigid movement in the plane or in the space that does not distort the object is an
isometry. All translations, all rotations and all reflections are isometries

• A translation in the space is a transformation that moves, in the same

direction, all points at a fixed distance. It can also think the translation as an
addition of a vector(V) and a constant, for each point.

𝑇𝑝 𝑝 = 𝑃 + 𝑉

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction

• A rotation is a transformation that moves the object with a rigid movement

and that leaves one fixed point.

• A reflection is a transformation that “mirrors” all points in relation with

another point called center of reflection. The center of reflection can be also
a straight line or a plane.

The homothety is a particular transformation, in the plane or in the space, which

dilates or makes smaller the object and maintains constant both angles and
shapes.
The homothety is characterized by a value “c”, called ratio of homothety. The
homothety multiplies distances by “c”, areas by “c2” and volumes by “c3”.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple geometrical construction

In the plane, a similarity is a particular transformation that maintains ratios

between distances.
Each similarity can be obtained by the composition of a homothety and an
isometry (or vice versa).
These transformations keep the shape of the object, but change the position,
the orientation and the dimension. It is important remember that two similar
objects have the same shape.

if you analyze triangles there are three particular laws about the similarity:

• Two triangles are similar only if they have three angles congruent.
• Two triangles are similar if they have two sides congruent and the angle,
included between them, congruent.
• Two triangles are similar if they have neatly three sides congruent.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphical representation

In mathematics, and in statistics, the graphical representation is often used. The

graphical representation is based on the use of diagrams. A diagram is a curve
showing the relationships between two or more quantities or elements.

In mathematics, the diagrams are often used to represent a mathematical

function, because the diagrams have the advantage to be of more immediate
comprehension than the common data tables. In fact the diagrams are based on
the visual perception of the user. The main elements of a diagram are two axes,
called X and Y, on which the elements are represented.

However, to build the diagram it is necessary to start from a table that identifies
the relations between different data, which must be represented.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Nature and uses of graphs

Diagrams are very used, besides in mathematics and statistics, also in other
scientific and resource fields, because they present a simple comprehension and
a simple use.

There are different types of diagram:

• The line graphs.
• Bar graphs (also called histograms).
• Aerogram or circle graphs (generally used to represent the percentages of a
set).
• Ideograms or picture graphs (generally used to present statistical
information). In these graphs the measure is not the unitary distance
represented on the sheet, as in the bar graphs, but the symbol of the
represented quantity itself.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

A graph similar to a diagram is used to represent quantities that are

mathematically, or physically, connected among them. It is called Cartesian
representation. A Cartesian graph is made of two orthogonal axes. This pair of
axes is known as Cartesian or orthogonal axes.

The horizontal axis is called x-axis or axis of abscissas, while the vertical axis is
called y-axis or ordinate axis.

The point where the two axes meet is called origin and is indicated by the
symbol zero. By convention, the values along the x-axis, to the right of the
origin, are positive values, while those to the left are negative.

The convention also refers to the y-axis, because the values above the origin,
upwards, are considered positive, while those under the origin, downwards, are
negative.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

To identify a point on the graph it is necessary to provide two values

corresponding to x and y.
Usually, this pair of values is written between brackets: the x value is written first
and separated from the y value by a comma.

𝑥, 𝑦
The ratio of x and y is a constant and represents a straight line passing through
the origin. The value of this constant represents the slope, the inclination of the
straight line passing through the origin.
A character, for example “m”, generally indicates the constant. We can
therefore write that the ratio of x and y is equal to “m” that is:

𝑥
=𝑚 → 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
𝑦

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

If the straight line does not pass through the origin, the ratio becomes the
following:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where “c” is the value measured on the y-axis, starting from the origin, until the
point where the straight line of the graph intersects at the y-axis.

If we introduce a value for “x” raised to a power, for example “x” raised to a
power of two, we obtain a non-linear graph, more precisely a curve.
The standard form of the second degree equation is the following:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 2

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

The equation can be solved graphically, generating a curve when joining a series
of points corresponding to the series of values of “x” and of the corresponding
values of “y”, when “x” is replaced by a series of positive and negative values.

Non-linear graphic representations are:

• The parabola

3
• The hyperbola 𝐸𝑥: 𝑦= .
𝑥

• The sinusoid, which describes the harmonic motion.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

The formula of the parabola is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.

When 𝑏 = 0 (Example 𝑦 = 5𝑥² + 7) the parabola has the vertex on the y axis.

We can find the interception of any curve with the x axis imposing 𝑦 = 0 to the
formula.

We can find the interception of any curve with the “y” axis imposing 𝑥 = 0 to the
formula.

Example: the curve 4𝑦 = 𝑥 + 8 intercept “y” when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 2.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

Having two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in order to find the line that cross the
two points we have to find “m”:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
In order to write the equation of the line that cross the two points we have to use
the following low:

𝑦 − 𝑦_1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥_1 )

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Graphs of equations/functions

Two lines are parallel if they have the same angular coefficient:

𝑚1 = 𝑚2
Two lines are perpendicular if they have the angular coefficient opposite and
mutual:

1
𝑚1 = −
𝑚2
• Example:
𝑦1 = 𝑥 (bisecting of first quadrant)
𝑦2 = 𝑥 + 3
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 → parallel

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple trigonometry

The trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships

between the sides and the angles of triangles.
The main task of trigonometry consists of calculating the measures of the
elements of triangles through special functions.
The trigonometric functions are all angle functions.
The main trigonometric elements are: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant
and cosecant. The definition of these functions can be studied with the unit-
circle analysis.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple trigonometry

If on the unit-circle we draw a half line, from the center to a generic point P,
forming with the abscissas axis an angle “x”, we can define the sine of angle (sin
x) as the value of the coordinate y of the point P.
The cosine (cos x) is defined as the value of the coordinate “x” of the point P. The
tangent, instead, is defined as the ratio of sin x to cos x, while the cotangent is
the ratio of cos x to sin x.

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Trigonometric relationships

The trigonometric relationships permit to join the different trigonometric

functions.

The first fundamental correlation is between the sine and the cosine:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1
The second relation introduces the definition of the tangent:

sin 𝑥
tan 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
A characteristic of sine and cosine is that they are always between -1 and 1

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 Module 1 – Mathematics

Simple trigonometry

Values of sine, cosine and tangent are listed here below:

𝐶𝑜𝑠 0° = 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0 = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑛 0° = 0

𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 ° = 0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90° = 1 𝑇𝑎𝑛 90° = ∞

𝐶𝑜𝑠 180 ° = −1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 180° = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑛 180° = 0

𝐶𝑜𝑠 270° = 0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 270° = −1 𝑇𝑎𝑛 270° = ∞

𝐶𝑜𝑠 360° = 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 360° = 0 𝑇𝑎𝑛 360° = 0

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Thank you for your attention.

Pag.