List of results - Midterm Exam

Theorem 3.1: Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one reduced echelon matrix.
Proposition 3.2: The number of pivots in a matrix A is at most the number of columns of A.
Theorem 3.3: A linear system is consistent if and only if the rightmost column of the augmented
matrix is not a pivot column – that is, if and only if an echelon form of the augmented matrix has no
h i
row of the form 0 0 · · · 0 b with b nonzero.
If a linear system is consistent, then the solution set contains either (i) a unique solution, when there
are no free variables, or (ii) infinitely many solutions, when there is at least one free variable.
Proposition 4.1: A vector equation

x1~v1 + x2~v2 + . . . + xp~vp = ~u

has the same solution as the linear system whose augmented matrix is
h i
~v1 ~v2 · · · ~vp ~u

Theorem 5.1: If A is an m × n matrix with columns ~v1 , . . . , ~vn , and if ~b is in Rm , the matrix equation
A~x = ~b has the same solution set as the vector equation

x1~v1 + x2~v2 + . . . + xn~vn = ~b,

which, in turn, has the same solution set as the system of linear equation whose augmented matrix is
h i
~v1 ~v2 · · · ~vn ~b

Corollary 5.2: The equation A~x = ~b has a solution if and only if ~b is a linear combination of the
columns of A.
Theorem 5.3: Let A be an m × n matrix. Then the following statements are logically equivalent.
That is, for a particular A, either they are all true statements or they are all false.
(a) For each ~b in Rm , the equation A~x = ~b has a solution.
(b) Each ~b in Rm is a linear combination of the columns of A.
(c) The columns of A span Rm .
(d) (The coefficient matrix) A has a pivot position in every row.
Theorem 5.4: If A is an m × n matrix, ~u and ~v are vectors in Rn , and c is a scalar, then:
(a) A(~u + ~v ) = A~u + A~v
(b) A(c~u) = c(A~u)
Theorem 6.1: The homogeneous equation A~x = ~0 has a nontrivial solution if and only if the equation
has at least one free variable.
Theorem 6.2: The set of solutions of the homogeneous equation A~x = ~0 is equal to the set

Span{~v1 , . . . , ~vp }

for suitable vectors ~v1 , . . . , ~vp satisfying A~vi = ~0.

Theorem 6.3: Suppose that the equation A~x = ~b is consistent for some given ~b, and let p~ be a
solution. Then the solution set of A~x = ~b is the set of all vectors of the form w
~ = p~ + ~v , where ~v is
any solution of the homogeneous equation A~x = ~0.
Theorem 7.1: If a set S = {~v1 , . . . , ~vp } contains the zero vector, then the set is linearly dependent.
Proposition 7.2: The columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if and only if the equation
A~x = ~0 has only the trivial solution.
Proposition 7.3: A set containing only one vector {~v } is linearly independent if and only if ~v is not
the zero vector.
Proposition 7.4: A set of two vectors {~v1 , ~v2 } is linearly independent if and only if neither of the
vectors is a multiple of the other.
Theorem 7.5: An indexed set S = {~v1 , . . . , ~vp } of two or more vectors is linearly dependent if and
only if at least one of the vectors in S is a linear combination of the others. In fact, if S is linearly
dependent and ~v1 6= ~0, then there exists ~vj (with j > 1) that is a linear combination of the preceding
vectors ~v1 , . . . , ~vj−1 .
Theorem 7.6: If a set contains more vectors than there are entries in each vector, then the set is
linearly dependent. That is, any set {~v1 , . . . , ~vp } in Rn is linearly dependent if p > n.
Theorem 7.7: Suppose n ≤ m and A is an m × n matrix. The columns of A are linearly independent
if and only if A has n pivot columns.
Proposition 8.1: If T is a linear transformation, then T (~0) = ~0 and T (c~u + d~v ) = cT (~u) + dT (~v ) for
all vectors ~u, ~v in the domain of T and all scalars c, d.
Theorem 8.2: Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then there exists a unique matrix A
such that T (~x) = A~x for all ~x in Rn .
Theorem 8.3: Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one if and only if the
equation T (~x) = ~0 has only the trivial solution.
Theorem 8.4: Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation, and let A be the standard matrix for
T . Then:
(i) T maps Rn onto Rm if and only if the columns of A span Rm .
(ii) T is one-to-one if and only if the columns of A are linearly independent.
Theorem 8.5: Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation, and let A be the standard matrix for
T . Then:
(i) T maps Rn onto Rm if and only if the matrix A has a pivot position in every row.
(ii) T is one-to-one if and only if the matrix A has a pivot position in every column.
Theorem 10.2: If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each ~b in Rn , the equation A~x = ~b has
the unique solution ~x = A−1~b.
Theorem 10.3: (a) If A is an invertible matrix, then A−1 is invertible and (A−1 )−1 = A.
(b) If A and B are n × n matrices, then so is AB, and the inverse of AB is (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
(c) If A is an invertible matrix, then so is AT , and the inverse of AT is (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .
Corollary 10.4: The product of n × n invertible matrices is invertible, and the inverse is the product
of their inverses in reverse order.
Theorem 10.5: An n × n matrix A is invertible if and only if A is row equivalent to In , and in this
case, any sequence of elementary row operations that reduces A to In also transforms In into A−1 .
Theorem 10.7: Let A be a square n × n matrix. The following are equivalent:
(a) A is an invertible matrix.
(b) A is row equivalent to the n × n identity matrix.
(c) A has n pivot positions.
(d) The equation A~x = ~0 has only the trivial solution.
(e) The columns of A form a linearly independent set.
(f) The linear transformation ~x 7→ A~x is one-to-one.
(g) The equation A~x = ~b has one solution for each ~b in Rn .
(h) The columns of A span Rn .
(i) The linear transformation ~x 7→ A~x maps Rn onto Rn .
(j) There is an n × n matrix C such that CA = I.
(k) There is an n × n matrix D such that AD = I.
(l) AT is an invertible matrix.
Theorem 10.8: Let T : Rn → Rn be a linear transformation and let A be the standard matrix for T .
Then T is invertible if and only if A is an invertible matrix. In that case, the linear transformation S
given by S(~x) = A−1 ~x is the unique function satisfying

S(T (~x)) = ~x for all ~x in Rn

T (S(~x)) = ~x for all ~x in Rn

Proposition 11.5: A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det A 6= 0.

Theorem 12.1: Let A be an invertible n × n matrix. For any ~b in Rn , the unique solution ~x of A~x = ~b
has entries given by
det Ai (~b)
xi = , i = 1, 2 . . . , n
det A
Theorem 12.2: Suppose that A is an n × n invertible matrix, ε > 0, and ~b in Rn . Then, the solution
of the linear system A~x = ~b + ~ε is a continuous function of ε.
Theorem 12.3: Let A be an invertible n × n matrix. Then
1
A−1 = adj A
det A
Theorem 12.4: If A is a 2 × 2 matrix, the area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of
A is | det A|. If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A
is | det A|.
Theorem 12.5: Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation determined by a 2 × 2 matrix A. If S
is a parallelogram in R2 , then

{area of T (S)} = | det A| · {area of S}

If T is determined by a 3 × 3 matrix A, and if S is a parallelepiped in R3 , then

{volume of T (S)} = | det A| · {volume of S}

Theorem 12.6: Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation determined by a 2 × 2 matrix A. If S

is a bounded region in R2 , then

{area of T (S)} = | det A| · {area of S}

If T is determined by a 3 × 3 matrix A, and if S is bounded region in R3 , then

{volume of T (S)} = | det A| · {volume of S}