1 Week Sumary

Formal Logic vs.
Informal Logic
 Logic is a science that helps us tell the difference between good and
bad arguments.
 Formal logic focuses on the patterns of reasoning in arguments. It

looks at general rules that make arguments valid (correct) or invalid
(incorrect).
 Informal logic sees arguments as a part of language, something we

do with words in real situations. It studies how arguments are used
in everyday conversations.
Reason, Justification, and Argument
 We come across arguments all the time, like when we talk, read, or
think. People are constantly trying to tell us what to do or believe,
and when we ask "Why?", we're asking for a reason or justification
for it.
 A good reason is one that should make us act or believe in what

someone suggests. Giving good reasons is called making an
argument.
 Not all attempts to convince people are arguments. Arguments try to

give reasons, but some attempts (like emotional manipulation)
don’t.
Conclusion and Premises
 The conclusion of an argument is the main point the person wants to

prove.
 The premises are the reasons or evidence that support the

conclusion.
 It’s important to identify both the premises and conclusion to

understand an argument. Sometimes people don’t state all their
premises clearly, so we need to figure out what they mean by
reconstructing the argument.
Argument Analysis
 After identifying an argument, we check if the reasons given are

good enough to support the conclusion. This process is called
evaluating the argument.
 Argument analysis involves reconstructing the argument and then

evaluating it. You can also evaluate arguments in your own
thoughts.
 Arguments aren’t just about winning. They help us figure out the
most reasonable belief on a topic.
Rhetorical Force vs. Rational Strength
 Some arguments are convincing because they are rhetorically

powerful (they use emotional or striking examples), but that doesn’t
mean they’re logically strong.
 Rational strength means the argument gives good reasons to believe

the conclusion, even if it doesn’t persuade everyone.
Critical Thinking
 Rational thinkers can tell the difference between arguments and

non-arguments, understand arguments, and evaluate them fairly.
 They also have certain attitudes: they are open-minded, willing to

change their minds if the arguments are good, and able to form
beliefs even when things are uncertain.
Abilities and Attitudes of a Rational Thinker
 Rational thinkers have certain skills and ways of thinking that help
them deal with arguments effectively.
Key Abilities:
1. Knowing what an argument is: They can tell when someone is

making a real argument and when they are not.
2. Understanding arguments: They can read or listen to an argument

and understand what it means.
3. Judging arguments: They can decide if the argument is good or bad,

based on careful and fair thinking.
The first two abilities need thoughtful reading and listening. The
third requires being fair and open-minded when judging arguments.
Important Attitudes:
1. Being open-minded: They are willing to look at arguments from all

sides.
2. Being ready to change their mind: If the argument is strong, they

are willing to accept new ideas, even if it means letting go of their
old beliefs.
3. Letting go of popular beliefs: If an argument shows that a common

belief is wrong, they are ready to give it up.
4. Accepting popular beliefs: If an argument supports a widely
accepted belief, they are willing to go along with it.
5. Dealing with uncertainty: They can form opinions even when things
aren’t clear.
Good Arguments vs. Bad Arguments:
 Not all arguments are good. To tell the difference, we need to

carefully analyze them. But before doing this, we first need to figure
out whether the person is actually trying to convince us with an
argument.
Types of Arguments:
 Arguments about opinions: Sometimes, an argument is about a

belief, like “I think this is true.”
 Arguments about actions: Other times, it’s about suggesting what

we should do, like “You should stop using plastic.”
Even though these two types seem different, they’re connected. For
example, if someone argues that you should use less plastic, they’re
also saying, “It’s true that using less plastic is a good thing.”
Truth in Arguments:
 Truth means what a claim says matches reality. For example, if

someone says “New York is farther from Istanbul than Berlin is,” it’s
true if New York really is farther.
But one claim alone doesn’t make an argument. An argument needs

multiple claims: one that the person is trying to prove, and at least
one more to support that claim.
Supported vs. Unsupported Claims
 A single statement (claim) isn’t an argument by itself. To make an

argument, you need reasons (premises) to support the claim
(conclusion).
 For example, if someone says "The world is facing an environmental

catastrophe," that’s just a claim. But if they add reasons, like
"Scientists have collected data showing this," it becomes an
argument.
Language and Arguments
 Arguments rely on language, and language is based on conventions

(rules). We use words to communicate information, ask questions,
give orders, and make arguments.
 Misunderstanding how language works can lead to unnecessary
disagreements, like when someone says, "It’s just a matter of
definition." While definitions are sometimes important, most of the
time, truth depends on the actual facts in the world.
Exceptions
 Sometimes the truth is based on definitions, like "A triangle has

three sides" or "A sin is something wrong." But generally, truth
comes from facts, not just definitions.

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Formal Logic vs.

 Formal logic focuses on the patterns of reasoning in arguments. It

 Informal logic sees arguments as a part of language, something we

Reason, Justification, and Argument

 A good reason is one that should make us act or believe in what

 Not all attempts to convince people are arguments. Arguments try to

Conclusion and Premises

 The conclusion of an argument is the main point the person wants to

 The premises are the reasons or evidence that support the

 It’s important to identify both the premises and conclusion to

 After identifying an argument, we check if the reasons given are

 Argument analysis involves reconstructing the argument and then

Rhetorical Force vs. Rational Strength

 Some arguments are convincing because they are rhetorically

 Rational strength means the argument gives good reasons to believe

 Rational thinkers can tell the difference between arguments and

 They also have certain attitudes: they are open-minded, willing to

Abilities and Attitudes of a Rational Thinker

1. Knowing what an argument is: They can tell when someone is

2. Understanding arguments: They can read or listen to an argument

3. Judging arguments: They can decide if the argument is good or bad,

1. Being open-minded: They are willing to look at arguments from all

2. Being ready to change their mind: If the argument is strong, they

3. Letting go of popular beliefs: If an argument shows that a common

Good Arguments vs. Bad Arguments:

 Not all arguments are good. To tell the difference, we need to

 Arguments about opinions: Sometimes, an argument is about a

 Arguments about actions: Other times, it’s about suggesting what

 Truth means what a claim says matches reality. For example, if

But one claim alone doesn’t make an argument. An argument needs

Supported vs. Unsupported Claims

 A single statement (claim) isn’t an argument by itself. To make an

 For example, if someone says "The world is facing an environmental

Language and Arguments

 Arguments rely on language, and language is based on conventions

 Sometimes the truth is based on definitions, like "A triangle has

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